Cognitive, Affective and Social Psychological Correlates of Psychopathic Personality Traits in Offenders and Non-Offenders by Steven Mark GILLESPIE A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Psychology College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham June 2013 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract This thesis aimed to investigate the cognitive, affective and social-psychological correlates of psychopathic traits in offenders and non-offenders. In particular, the aim was to examine the differential effects of primary (selfish, uncaring) and secondary (reckless, prone to boredom) psychopathic traits on self-report and behavioural responses across a series of experiments. The results of Chapter 2 indicate that both primary and secondary psychopathic traits are associated with reduced empathic functioning. However, while primary traits were associated with reduced affective empathy, secondary traits were associated with reduced affective, cognitive, and social skills empathy. These results were further supported by the findings from economical decision-making games in Chapter 3. These results suggest that while elevated levels of secondary psychopathic traits may be linked with a lack of generosity for the out-group, such individuals may also show pro-social sentiment for the in-group. To better understand the cognitive mechanisms underlying empathic functioning in relation to psychopathic traits, Chapter 4 used eye tracking during an expression recognition task. Results revealed that primary psychopathic traits were linked with abnormal eye scan paths, indicated by reduced dwell time on the eye region of emotional faces. Chapter 5 aimed to further investigate these findings in a sample of sexual and violent offenders, with results revealing poor recognition of fearful faces relative to other emotions among sexual offenders. Furthermore, primary but not secondary psychopathic traits were linked with poorer performance for fearful face recognition. Taken together these findings show that primary and secondary psychopathic traits are linked with different patterns of performance on psychological tests relevant to socio-emotional functioning. These findings support the view that the variance accounted for by these traits should be considered separately in psychopathy research and in clinical practice. ~ To mum, dad and Natalie ~ Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my academic supervisors, Dr. Ian Mitchell and Prof. Tony Beech who have provided nothing but the best support and advice. I first approached Ian as a second year undergraduate with an interest in forensic psychology. From there he helped me to secure a vacation scholarship which meant I could spend the summer doing something which interested me and left me wanting to find out more. Not only that, but I was introduced to Tony who was soon persuaded to be a co-supervisor on my application to undertake a PhD. What followed over the next four years was a remarkable demonstration of kindness and support in everything I attempted. Their guidance and generosity with their time over the last four years is greatly appreciated. I can only offer them my deepest sympathies that they do not support better football teams! At this point it would be unfair not to also mention the influences of Prof. Glyn Humphreys and the truly brilliant Dr Pia Rotshtein on my fledgling academic career. Without Pia’s guidance the experiments developed for Chapters 4 and 5 would not have been possible. Her refusal to engage with me in conversation until I hand in this thesis is motivation alone to ensure I finish quickly! Thanks also go to Richard Shuker and the staff and offenders of HM Prison Grendon where data collection for Chapter 5 was undertaken. I am enormously grateful to Alice Murray who arranged all of the testing sessions and was a very friendly face throughout data collection. I would also like to thank the School of Psychology for providing the financial stability needed to undertake a full time PhD. I am also thankful to have gained part-time employment with both the School of Psychology and the Lucy Faithfull Foundation over the last 12 months. I would like to say particular thanks to Hilary Eldridge and Donald Findlater form the Lucy Faithful Foundation who I look forward to continuing to work with in the future. Thanks also go to those who have made my time here fun; to Eric Robinson who provided many highs and the lows while doing battle on Pro Evolution Soccer; to Melissa Carey who has always been there for me over the past year; to Siobhan and Rob who so kindly gave me a roof over my head while I found a place to live; to Patrick Burns, Andrew Surtees and many others who made Thursday football happen through rain, hail and snow; to Ian Elliott, Louise Dixon, Leigh Harkins and Sue Hanson who have been great colleagues and friends; and to Katie Chisholm and many others who have been friends from the start. Thank you all! A huge amount of debt and gratitude also goes to my mum, dad and ‘big’ sister, Natalie. They have provided complete and unconditional (and often financial) support throughout the completion of this PhD. Their pride and words of encouragement have offered the greatest form of motivation. I love you all. I would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge those who supported me before I ever submitted a UCAS application. Having been taken ill before my GCSEs, my academic future was in the hands of those at St Peter’s RC High School and Loreto College. To those who showed care and support at a difficult time, I thank you greatly. Finally, reaching this stage would never have been possible were it not for those whose medical skills have changed my life forever; Mr James Leggate, Mr Brad Williamson and Dr Rao Gattamaneni. I can never thank you enough. Dissemination Chapter 3, largely in its current form, has been resubmitted to PLoS ONE for review. Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE THESIS ............................................................................. 1 1.1. Aims of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Organisation of the thesis ............................................................................................... 2 1.3. A historical overview of psychopathic personality ......................................................... 4 1.4. Psychopathic subtypes .................................................................................................... 6 1.4.1. Recognition of subtypes ........................................................................................ 6 1.4.2. Are psychopaths anxious? .................................................................................... 8 1.5. Dissociating psychopathy from antisocial personality disorder ................................... 12 1.6. Childhood correlates of psychopathy ........................................................................... 15 1.6.1. Conduct Disorder ................................................................................................ 15 1.6.2. Callous and unemotional traits ........................................................................... 16 1.7. Developmental factors and psychopathy ..................................................................... 19 1.7.1. Family factors ...................................................................................................... 19 1.7.2. Attachment ......................................................................................................... 22 1. 8. Motivational patterns .................................................................................................. 30 1.8.1. Motivations for offending among psychopaths ................................................. 30 1.8.2. Motivational factors in primary and secondary psychopathy ............................ 33 1.9. Neuropsychological and neurobiological markers of psychopathy .............................. 33 1.9.1. Facial expression recognition .............................................................................. 33 1.9.2. Toward a neurobiological model of fearful face recognition deficits in psychopathy ........................................................................................................................... 38 1.9.3. Eye scan paths, fearful face recognition, and psychopathy ............................... 41 1.10. Psychopathy and aversive conditioning ..................................................................... 44 1.11. Clinical correlates ........................................................................................................ 49 1.11.1. The relationship between psychopathy and social phobia .............................. 49 1.11.2. The relationships of psychopathy and social phobia with antisocial