NORTH CAROLINA JOURNAL OF LAW & TECHNOLOGY Volume 16 | Issue 4 Article 2 6-1-2015 Ghost in the "New Machine": How Alice Exposed Software Patenting's Category Mistake Andrew Chin Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.law.unc.edu/ncjolt Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Andrew Chin, Ghost in the "New Machine": How Alice Exposed Software Patenting's Category Mistake, 16 N.C. J.L. & Tech. 623 (2015). Available at: http://scholarship.law.unc.edu/ncjolt/vol16/iss4/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Carolina Law Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology by an authorized administrator of Carolina Law Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. NORTH CAROLINA JOURNAL OF LAW & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 16, ISSUE 4: JUNE 2015 GHOST IN THE “NEW MACHINE”: HOW ALICE EXPOSED SOFTWARE PATENTING’S CATEGORY MISTAKE Andrew Chin* The Alice Court’s characterization of computer programming has effectively repudiated, inter alia, the doctrine that programming a general-purpose computer creates a patent-eligible “new machine.” This Article revisits In re Bernhart, the first holding based on the “new machine” principle, concluding that the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals committed a category mistake in conducting its nonobviousness analysis. This suggests that § 101 has a unique role to play in ensuring the analytical coherence of the other tests for patentability, and that step two of the Mayo/Alice test could helpfully enforce the doctrinal distinction between a patent-eligible “method or means” and an unpatentable “result or effect.” TABLE OF CONTENTS I. THE “NEW MACHINE” RATIONALE .................................. 624 II. AN INTRODUCTION TO CATEGORY MISTAKES ................. 628 III. THE CATEGORY MISTAKE IN BERNHART ......................... 630 IV. DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 637 A. Bernhart in Light of Alice (and Vice Versa) ................. 637 B. The “Method or Means” Requirement ........................ 638 C. Harmonization with Supreme Court Jurisprudence .... 640 V. CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 644 * Associate Professor, University of North Carolina School of Law. The author wishes to thank Daniel Cole and Alex Covington for their diligent and their insightful research assistance, Bernard Chao and Joshua Sarnoff for their helpful suggestions, Jeffrey Lefstin for his useful discussions, and the symposium organizers for the opportunity to participate in such a timely and stimulating discussion about the implications of the Alice decision. 623 624 N.C. J.L. & TECH. [VOL. 16: 623 I. THE “NEW MACHINE” RATIONALE In re Alappat, 1 once a mainstay of the Patent Office’s Guidelines for Examining Computer-Related Inventions,2 and its doctrinal principle that programming a general-purpose computer creates a patent-eligible “new machine”3 are already fading into history. Not much was left of this principle after the Federal Circuit reviewed Alice’s patents en banc,4 and even less remains now that the Supreme Court has concluded “mere recitation of a generic computer cannot transform a patent-ineligible abstract idea into a patent-eligible invention.”5 Consequently, the agency’s post- Alice Interim Guidance on Patent Subject Matter Eligibility6 makes 1 33 F.3d 1526 (Fed. Cir. 1994) (en banc). 2 See Examination Guidelines for Computer-Related Inventions, 61 Fed. Reg. 7478 (Feb. 28, 1996) (citing Alappat nine times). 3 Alappat, 33 F.3d at 1545 abrogated by In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (citation omitted) (“We have held that such programming creates a new machine, because a general purpose computer in effect becomes a special purpose computer once it is programmed to perform particular functions pursuant to instructions from program software.”). The Alappat court also reasoned that the claimed programmed general- purpose computer was “not a disembodied mathematical concept which may be characterized as an ‘abstract idea,’ but rather a specific machine to produce a useful, concrete, and tangible result.” Id. at 1544. It was not until State Street Bank, however, that the Federal Circuit elevated Alappat’s “useful, concrete, and tangible result” language into a test for patent-eligibility. State St. Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Fin. Grp., Inc., 149 F.3d 1368, 1373 (Fed. Cir. 1998) (“Today, we hold that the transformation of data, representing discrete dollar amounts, by a machine through a series of mathematical calculations into a final share price, constitutes a [patent-eligible invention] because it produces ‘a useful, concrete and tangible result. .”) Since the Federal Circuit abrogated this test in In re Bilski, 545 F.3d at 959–60, it has no bearing on Alappat’s “new machine” principle as discussed in this Article. 4 See CLS Bank Int’l v. Alice Corp., 717 F.3d 1269, 1292 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (en banc) (Lourie, J.) (plurality opinion) (“Not only has the world of technology changed, but the legal world has changed. The Supreme Court has spoken since Alappat on the question of patent eligibility, and we must take note of that change.”). 5 See Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 134 S. Ct. 2347, 2358 (2014). 6 See United States Patent and Trademark Office, Interim Guidance on Patent Subject Matter Eligibility, 79 Fed. Reg. 74618 (Dec. 16, 2014) [hereinafter Interim Guidance]. JUNE 2015] Ghost in the “New Machine” 625 no mention of Alappat, the leading case in support of the principle.7 In its place are lists of examples purporting to illustrate the otherwise undefined8 category of unpatentable abstract ideas9 and the kinds of additional claim elements that may provide the requisite “significantly more” to impart patent-eligibility.10 Yet Alappat has lessons to impart before it is sent into oblivion. First, Alappat remains an important precedent concerning the interpretation of functional language in software patent claims under § 112(f). As argued elsewhere,11 the Federal Circuit’s claim construction in that case is both rhetorically and logically unconnected to the “new machine” principle, and properly illustrates the kinds of computer technologies that may be found sufficiently concrete in a specification to support a claimed means- plus-function element.12 Second, it is time for patent-eligibility doctrine to recognize the now-discredited “new machine” principle for what it has always been: an abdication of § 101’s13 essential role in guarding against mistakes that could otherwise arise in the patentability analysis of software-implemented inventions. Dissenting in In re Bilski,14 the Federal Circuit’s former Chief Judge Randall Rader suggested such a role for patentable subject matter doctrine in finding Bilski’s hedging claim facially abstract without resorting to the en banc majority’s machine-or-transformation test: When considering the eligibility of “processes,” this court should focus on the potential for an abstract claim. Such an abstract claim would 7 See id. at 74624. 8 See Alice, 134 S. Ct. at 2357 (“In any event, we need not labor to delimit the precise contours of the ‘abstract ideas’ category in this case.”); Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 621 (2010) (Stevens, J., concurring) (“The Court, in sum, never provides a satisfying account of what constitutes an unpatentable abstract idea.”). 9 See Interim Guidance, supra note 6, at 74622. 10 See id. at 74624. 11 Andrew Chin, Alappat Redux: Support for Functional Language in Software Patent Claims, 66 SMU L. REV. 491, 500 (2013). 12 Id. at 500–01. 13 35 U.S.C. § 101 (2012). 14 In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (en banc) (Rader, J., dissenting) (emphasis added). 626 N.C. J.L. & TECH. [VOL. 16: 623 appear in a form that is not even susceptible to examination against prior art under the traditional tests for patentability. Thus this court would wish to ensure that the claim supplied some concrete, tangible technology for examination. Indeed the hedging claim at stake in this appeal is a classic example of abstractness. Hedging is a fundamental economic practice long prevalent in our system of commerce and taught in any introductory finance class. In any event, this facially abstract claim does not warrant the creation of new eligibility exclusions.15 Judge Rader’s approach merits close study, because the Supreme Court’s Bilski majority essentially adopted it in its own opinion rejecting the machine-or-transformation test.16 Even before Alice,17 the “new machine” principle had been criticized often enough to earn the derisory nickname “The Old 15 Id. at 1013. 16 Judge Rader prefigured the Supreme Court’s rejection of the en banc majority’s project of elevating machine-or-transformation from a clue to a definitive test, and took existing Supreme Court precedents as sufficient guideposts for finding Bilski’s claimed method to be “facially abstract.” Id. at 1013. The sole factual basis underlying the Supreme Court majority’s rejection of Bilski’s claims was Judge Rader’s characterization of hedging. Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 611 (2010) (quoting In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 1013 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (Rader, J., dissenting)); see also id. at 606 (citing In re Bilski, 545 F.3d at 1015) (agreeing with Judge Rader’s findings of “difficulties” with the en banc majority’s machine-or-transformation test). The Court proceeded immediately from this characterization to the conclusion that Bilski’s claims were unpatentably abstract, just as Judge Rader had done. Id. Underscoring the fundamental importance of this analytical mistake-avoiding function is the fact that Judge Rader’s post-Bilski opinions generally take a narrow view of the abstract-idea exclusion, limiting its application to where abstractness “exhibit[s] itself so manifestly so as to override the broad statutory categories of eligible subject matter and the statutory context that directs primary attention on the patentability criteria of the rest of the Patent Act.” Research Corp. Technologies, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., 627 F.3d 859 (Fed.