Psychagogy in Plutarch’s Moralia and Parallel Lives: the image of the ideal Woman Lunette Warren Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Stellenbosch University Promotor: Prof. J.C. Thom Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences December 2016 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this thesis/dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. March 2016 Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT Plutarch’s views on women are significantly influenced by Plato’s metaphysics and virtue ethics, while he draws from other traditions as he sees fit. The theoretical-philosophical works of the Moralia conceptualise Woman as Man’s equal in terms of moral ability, but more susceptible to irrationality and thus vice. To correct this inherent weakness, Woman needs the guidance of the male principle, which will guide her towards reason and virtue. The popular- philosophical works share the assumptions of this metaphysical basis in Plutarch’s psychagogy for women. These texts show a desire to control women by rendering them completely subservient to their husbands. An extensive list of virtues and vices of women is discussed in the four works that form part of this psychagogic programme: Conjugalia praecepta, Consolatio ad uxorem, Mulierum virtutes and Lacaenarum apophthegmata. Plutarch uses these same virtues and vices to judge the female characters of his Lives, who are presented according to the virtue-vice binary, unlike his male characters. These historical women are written in such a way as to serve as exempla for his female audience. The image of Woman that emerges from the Moralia and the Lives is reactionary, based on a belief that social values were deteriorating. The literary and material records show that women of the early Imperial Period gained much in terms of social rights and public participation, and therefore they have little in common with Plutarch’s ideal Woman. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Plutarchos se siening van vroue is aansienlik beïnvloed deur Plato se metafisika en deugsetiek, met aanvulling vanuit ander tradisies soos hy voel nodig is. Die teoreties-filosofiese werke in die Moralia konseptualiseer die Vrou as Man se gelyke i.t.v. morele vermoë, maar meer vatbaar vir irrasionaliteit en dus ondeug. Om hierdie inherente swakheid reg te stel, benodig die Vrou die leiding van die manlike beginsel, wat haar na die rede en deug sal begelei. Die populêr-filosofiese werke deel in die aannames van hierdie metafisiese basis vir Ploutarchos se psigagogie vir vroue. Hierdie tekste toon ‘n begeerte om vroue te beheer deur hulle totaal onderdanig aan hul man te maak. ‘n Omvangryke lys van deugde en ondeugde word in die vier werke wat deel vorm van hierdie psigagogiese program bespreek: Conjugalia praecepta, Consolatio ad uxorem, Mulierum virtutes en Lacaenarum apophthegmata. Plutarchos gebruik hierdie selfde deugde en ondeugde om die vroulike karakters van sy Vitae te beoordeel. Anders as die manlike karakters, word hierdie vroue word volgens die deug-ondeug binêr voorgestel. Die historiese vroue is so geskryf dat hulle as exempla vir Plutarchos se vroulike gehoor kan optree. Die beeld van die Vrou wat uit die Moralia en Vitae te voorskyn kom is reaksionêr, gebaseer op die geloof dat sosiale waardes besig was om af te brokkel. Die literêre en materiële rekord wys egter dat vroue in die vroeë Keisertyd groot winste i.t.v. sosiale regte en publieke deelname gemaak het, en dus het hulle min in gemeen met Plutarchos se ideale Vrou. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For my mother, whose strength and resilience is my greatest inspiration. At the end of a project as consuming as this, it’s hard not to thank every person in your life. This is an incomplete list of those I am especially grateful for. Prof. Johan Thom, for his guidance throughout this project, and for allowing me the freedom to follow the texts where they took me. Prof. Sakkie Cornelius and Prof. Annemaré Kotzé, for offering words of wisdom on days when the project felt too big and the years too long or too short. Ruenda, for understanding. Jonathan, for being there, always. Joe, for cheering me on from the very beginning and without whose love and support all of this would have been much more difficult. Lastly, the financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are mine and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF. I would also like to express my gratitude towards the NRF and the DAAD for funding two separate research exchanges to Humboldt Universität zu Berlin. The experience gained during those months has been invaluable to this project. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ABBREVIATIONS All abbreviations are from the SBL Handbook of Style (2nd ed.), supplemented by the Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), except for the following: Catullus Carmina Carm. Livy Ab urbe condita Ab urb. cond. Plutarch Lacaenarum apophthegmata Lacae. apoph. Polybius Historiae Hist. v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za CONTENTS Declaration ............................................................................................................................... i Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii Opsomming .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Ethical Subjectivism ..................................................................................................... 6 1.2. Intersections and Generic Boundaries ...................................................................... 9 2. Women in Social Context .............................................................................................. 18 2.1. Plutarch’s (Female) Audience ............................................................................... 10 2.2. Theory and the Biology of Women ...................................................................... 20 2.3. The Socio-Economic and Political Context: ca. 500 BCE-100 CE .................. 25 2.3.1. Greece .................................................................................................................. 26 2.3.2. Rome .................................................................................................................... 42 2.3.3. The Social Atmosphere of the 1st Century CE ............................................ 50 2.4. Gendered Virtue and Space ................................................................................... 53 3. Plutarch’s Philosophical Framework ......................................................................... 62 3.1. Eclecticism, Practical-, Popular- and Personal Philosophy ........................... 63 3.2. Plato’s Woman .......................................................................................................... 69 3.3. The Feminine Principle: De Iside et Osiride and the Amatorius ...................... 74 3.4. Philosophical topoi in Plutarch’s work ................................................................ 85 3.4.1. Harmony ............................................................................................................. 87 3.4.2. Temperance ........................................................................................................ 91 3.4.3. Education ............................................................................................................ 94 3.4.4. Grief ..................................................................................................................... 95 3.4.5. Public action ....................................................................................................... 97 vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 4. Psychagogy ..................................................................................................................... 101 4.1. The Formation of the Self ........................................................................................ 116 5. Plutarch’s Woman ......................................................................................................... 120 5.1. Virtue and Vice in the Moralia ............................................................................ 120 5.1.1. Harmony ........................................................................................................... 121 5.1.2. Temperance and shame ................................................................................