Bull Volcanol (2008) 70:899–921 DOI 10.1007/s00445-007-0177-7 RESEARCH ARTICLE Emplacement mechanisms of contrasting debris avalanches at Volcán Mombacho (Nicaragua), provided by structural and facies analysis Thomas Shea & Benjamin van Wyk de Vries & Martín Pilato Received: 26 October 2006 /Accepted: 18 September 2007 /Published online: 15 November 2007 # Springer-Verlag 2007 Abstract We study the lithology, structure, and emplace- dynamics. Mombacho shows evidence of at least three ment of two debris-avalanche deposits (DADs) with large flank collapses, producing the two well-preserved contrasting origins and materials from the Quaternary– debris avalanches of this study; one on its northern flank, Holocene Mombacho Volcano, Nicaragua. A clear compar- “Las Isletas,” directed northeast, and the other on its ison is possible because both DADs were emplaced onto southern flank, “El Crater,” directed south. Other south- similar nearly flat (3° slope) topography with no apparent eastern features indicate that the debris-avalanche barrier to transport. This lack of confinement allows us to corresponding to the third collapse (La Danta) occurred study, in nature, the perfect case scenario of a freely before Las Isletas and El Crater events. The materials spreading avalanche. In addition, there is good evidence involved in each event were similar, except in their that no substratum was incorporated in the events during alteration state and in the amount of substrata initially flow, so facies changes are related only to internal included in the collapse. While “El Crater” avalanche shows no signs of substratum involvement and has characteristics of a hydrothermal weakening-related col- Editorial responsibility: C. Kilburn lapse, the “Las Isletas” avalanche involves significant Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article substratum and was generated by gravity spreading-related (doi:10.1007/s00445-007-0177-7) contains supplementary material, failure. The latter avalanche may have interacted with Lake which is available to authorized users. Nicaragua during transport, in which case its run-out could T. Shea : B. van Wyk de Vries have been modified. Through a detailed morphological and Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Université Blaise Pascal, structural description of the Mombacho avalanches, we Clermont-Ferrand, France provide two contrasting examples of non-eruptive volcanic e-mail: [email protected] flank collapse. We show that, remarkably, even with two M. Pilato distinct collapse mechanisms, the debris avalanches devel- UNAN Centro Universitario Regional del Norte (CURN), oped the same gross stratigraphy of a coarse layer above a B° 14 de Abril. 49, fine layer. This fine layer provided a low friction basal slide Estelí, Nicaragua layer. Whereas DAD layering and the run-outs are roughly e-mail: [email protected] similar, the distribution of structures is different and related M. Pilato to lithology: Las Isletas has clear proximal faults replaced Instituto Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), distally by inter-hummock depressions where basal unit Dirección General de Geofísica. Frente a Policlínica Oriental, zones are exhumed, whereas El Crater has faults through- Managua, Nicaragua out, but the basal layer is hidden in the distal zone. Present address: Hummocky forms depend on material type, with steep T. Shea (*) hummocks being formed of coherent lava units, and low Geology and Geophysics Deparment, hummocks by matrix-rich units. In both avalanches, SOEST, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, USA extensional structures predominate; the upper layers exclu- e-mail: [email protected] sively underwent longitudinal and lateral extension. This is DO00177; No of Pages 900 Bull Volcanol (2008) 70:899–921 consistent with evidence of only small amounts of block- Donnadieu and Merle 1998; Elsworth and Day 1999; to-block interactions during bulk horizontal spreading. Donnadieu et al. 2001), volcanic/tectonic seismicity (Voight The base of the moving mass accommodated transport by et al. 1983), magma-induced pore pressure increase large amounts of simple shear. We suggest that contrac- (Elsworth and Voight 1995), or even variations in local tional structures and inter-block collisions seen in many water levels (Bray 1977; Firth et al. 1996; McGuire 1996, other avalanches are artifacts related to topographic McGuire et al. 1997; Ablay and Hurlimann 2000). confinement. Recently, much attention has been given to volcano tectonic gravity-driven processes, such as spreading and Keywords Flank collapse . Debris avalanche deposit slumping, to explain edifice weakening and collapse (DAD) . Volcanic spreading . Hydrothermal alteration . triggering. The concept of gravitational spreading relies Substratum . Structural analysis . Hummocks . mainly on the effects of a volcano’s weight on the Lubricating layers underlying strata and on the edifice itself. It was first described by Van Benmelen (1949) and then used by Borgia et al. (1992) to explain the structural formation of Introduction Mount Etna. van Wyk de Vries et al. (1996b, 1997, 2000, and 2003) explored the phenomenon further, demonstrating Large-scale terrestrial volcanic slope failures have reshaped the relation between collapse, edifice weakening, tectonic volcanoes by generating numerous voluminous debris faulting, and flank spreading. avalanches with their associated scars. Debris-avalanche Volcanic edifice weakening is largely caused by zones of deposits (DADs) have volumes ranging from 0.1 to 45 km3, low strength created under the influence of a hydrothermal can cover several hundreds of square kilometers, and may system. Hydrothermal activity is defined as hot and travel distances greater than 100 km (Stoopes and Sheridan pressurized fluid circulation maintained by shallow internal 1992). Thus, they have the potential to cause human losses or deeper magma sources, rich in corrosive chemicals; these directly or through secondary catastrophic events like fluids tend to progressively alter the rocks and increase tsunamis, lahars, or magma release (Siebert 1984; Siebert general pore pressure, inevitably weakening the host edifice et al. 1987; Voight and Elsworth 1997). Debris avalanches (Frank 1983; Carrasco-Nunez et al. 1993; Lopez and are poorly understood in terms of genesis and transport but Williams 1993;Day1996; Vallance and Scott 1997; seem to follow certain patterns, occurring on structurally Iverson et al. 1997). Under the influence of gravity, the weakened volcanoes and generally triggered by short volcano deforms, destabilizes, and generates a slump that timescale events. As each volcano is built in a unique develops into a large flank collapse (van Wyk de Vries et al. geologic context and suffers a combination of weakening 2000; Reid et al. 2001; Cecchi et al. 2004). processes of different types, duration, and intensities, the detailed “formula” needed to produce such massive failures also varies considerably. Geological context This paper considers two large (>1 km3) collapses of different types giving rise to two debris avalanches of Regional setting similar run-out. Both were emplaced on a flat landscape, unaffected by topographic barriers or valleys. Detailed The Mombacho volcano stands on the Central American study of the surface morphology, lithology, and internal Volcanic Front (CAVF), which, in Nicaragua, consists of 21 structures of these avalanche deposits yields valuable volcanic centers built in the Nicaraguan depression along a information on emplacement mechanisms. near-perfect SE–NW trending line, with summits separated by distances of less than 30 km (Fig. 1). Collapse mechanisms relating to Mombacho Most Nicaraguan Quaternary volcanoes were built over three distinct large-scale ignimbrite deposits: the Malpaisillo, Commonly invoked mechanisms for triggering edifice Las Sierras, and Chiltepe shields. The Las Sierras and collapses are activation/reactivation of basement faults (Vidal Chiltepe shields originate from the coalescence of large and Merle 2000), surrounding/underlying active rift zones calderas near Masaya (namely, Masaya, Apoyeque, Jiloa, (van Wyk de Vries and Merle 1996a; Day et al. 1999), and Apoyo calderas). strike–slip faulting (Lagmay et al. 2000), caldera collapse The ignimbrites generated by the Las Sierras and Apoyo (Hurlimann et al. 1999), magmatic body intrusions calderas form the present substratum. The pumice-rich (Bezymianny-type activity defined by Gorshkov 1959; Apoyo ignimbrite overlies the Las Sierras and varies in Glicken et al. 1981; Voight et al. 1981, 1983; Siebert et al. thickness from a few meters in the northern region of 1987; McGuire et al. 1990;ElsworthandVoight1995; Mombacho to a few centimeters in southern zones. It is Bull Volcanol (2008) 70:899–921 901 Fig. 1 General map of western Nicaragua with main Quaternary (1993). PO Pacific Ocean and CS Caribbean Sea in small caption. 1 volcanoes (CAVF) and topographic map of enlarged Managua– Chiltepe shield (Apoyeque and Jiloa Calderas), 2 Las Sierras caldera Granada region. Outcrop distribution of Chiltepe, Las Sierras/Masaya complex, 3 Masaya caldera complex, 4 Apoyo caldera, and 5 (LS) shields and Apoyo (A) deposit. Modified from van Wyk de Vries Mombacho volcano likely that Mombacho already existed during the Apoyo Mountain, Acheron, Round top, Poerua rock-avalanches, eruptions but was smaller than today. Thus, the Apoyo Dunning 2006). In this case, we examine two lobate debris ignimbrite may underlie only the outer rim of the volcano,