Superflies into Superkillers: Black Masculinity in Film from Blaxploitation to New Black Realism KATHARINE BAUSCH N THE 1971 FILM SHAFT, ITS PROTAGONIST BEMOANS THAT HE “HAS two problems.” He was “born black and I was born poor.” Nearly I 20 years later, the narrative of John Singleton’s film Boyz in the Hood seemed to be the period on Shaft’s complaint by proclaiming that “One out of every 21 Black American males will be murdered” in the poor streets of South Central Los Angeles. Obviously, there is a link between these movies created decades apart that goes beyond having black protagonists. What is this link and how do we under- stand its relevance for the study of the history of film and cultural resistance? How did the 1970s’ characterization of superflies become the 1990s’ superkillers? Film theorist Noel Carroll first coined the term “allusionism” to explain how contemporary filmmakers use old cinematic conventions in their films. He also explored why they use old conventions in their films. He argues that because filmmakers in the 1990s were the first generation to have grown up with intense film watching, they pos- sessed a more solid knowledge of what had come before them. There- fore, they were able to comment on iconographic symbols in the past films, knowing that their audience would also recognize these icons. Carroll states that: allusionism, specifically allusion to film history, has become a major expressive device, that is, a means that directors use to make comments on the fictional worlds of their films … quotations, the memoralization of past genres, the reworking of past genres, The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 46, No. 2, 2013 © 2013, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 257 258 Katharine Bausch hommages, and the recreation of “classic” scenes, shots, plot motifs, lines of dialogue, themes, gestures, and so forth, from film history, especially as that history was crystallized and codified in the six- ties, and early seventies. (Carroll 52) One such genre that crystallized film history in the 1970s was Blax- ploitation. Blaxploitation films focused on black narratives, featured black casts in action-adventures in an urban setting, and were released roughly between 1969 and 1974 (Guerrero 69). This article investi- gates how New Black Realist films alluded to Blaxploitation films of the 1970s. New Black Realist films were made in the early 1990s, and were directed by young African-American men. Aesthetically contemporary urban settings, young black male protagonists, and an emphasis on nihilistic violence characterize New Black Realism. According to film theorist Paula J. Massood, these films “were directly influenced by black focused films from the 1970s and the changing industrial, political and economic environment in the 1980s” (Massood 145). While several theorists like Massood have explored the relationship between Blaxploitation and New Black Realism from an artistic point of view, noting their similar use of urban music, sepia lenses, and swift editing, the use of allusion theory expands our understanding. It allows us to put the films into a historical narrative about the culture of resistance in urban African-American communities. By understanding the strikingly similar contexts in which these films were made, but also the dispa- rate political frameworks to which they spoke, we begin to see that the link between the films goes beyond their aesthetic. Blaxploitation films’ images of African-American men were rooted in a fantasy of liberation and Black Power rhetoric. New Black Realist filmmakers alluded to Blaxploitation films and critiqued the fantasy and what they felt it became in reality. In this article, I will briefly describe the rise and fall of both Blax- ploitation and New Black Realist films and I will also tease out the artistic relationship between the two. There are several films from both the Blaxploitation and the New Black Realist film period, how- ever, this article, while mentioning several films, will focus on the two forerunners of both genres: Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song (1971) and Boyz in the Hood (1991). While many allusions exist Superflies into Superkillers 259 between Blaxploitation and New Black Realism, this article looks specifically at New Black Realism’s allusions to sex and sexuality in Blaxploitation films as it pertained to black masculinity. Specifically, I will look at three themes: sexuality and its relationship with matu- rity, sexuality and violence, and sexuality and black women. Black masculinity is a relevant site of cultural discussion in this context not only because the majority of the protagonists in both Blaxploitation and New Black Realist films are male but also because of the wider consequence of the black male identity in American society. While black men have always been a site for anxiety and imagination in American society, in the 1990s, young black men became the target of a renewed sensibility. They received attention from all forms of media: newspapers, television reports, music, sports, and so on. As major forces in the entertainment industry, the faces and voices of young black men pervaded the American consciousness. Moreover, the news media in America zoomed in on the role of young black men in violent crime, especially gang violence (Gibbs 2). Therefore, an interesting dual consciousness existed in America in the early 1990s. The American populous was at once afraid of young black men and also drawn to participate in their perceived culture. The significance of black masculinity in American culture is teased out in an analysis of the relationship between Blaxploitation and New Black Realist films, one in which New Black Realism alludes to Blax- ploitation techniques and, in so doing, analyzes its own context. New Black Realist filmmakers reworked the Blaxploitation genre, exploded what they saw as the old fantasies of black masculinity, and revised these images into a gritty reality. Films do not only serve as entertain- ment for a willing audience but also act as a contested space for debate on the society in which we live. New Black Realist film engages in this debate by referring to the fantasy world created by Blaxploitation. Blaxploitation films, mostly produced between 1969 and 1974, began a new era in filmmaking. For the first time in Hollywood his- tory, films made by African Americans and featuring mostly black casts became financially viable. As Melvyn Van Peebles, producer, writer, director, and star of one of the original Blaxploitation films Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song, states, the films “sought to reclaim the black spirit from centuries of manipulation by the white power structure” (Verney 84). However, the reasons for the rise of Blaxploi- tation films are more complicated than Van Peebles states. The rise 260 Katharine Bausch can be explained by the social climate at the time, the realities of the film industry, and how the content of these films satisfied the demands made by the other two factors. By the late 1960s, there was a perceptible shift in the mainstream civil rights movement, which had gained prominence in the 1950s. By 1970, many leaders in the black community were frustrated with what they felt was the conciliatory attitude of such organizations as Martin Luther King’s SCLC and the NAACP. These organizations were seen as largely beneficial for the black middle class and those that wished to succeed by integrating themselves into white middle class society. The Black Power movement developed as a response to this perceived “Uncle Tomism” of the black middle class (Van Deburg 133). In 1966 when Stokely Carmichael proclaimed “Black Power!” for the first time, there was renewed mainstream attention paid to black radicalism.1 Many observers at the time and now see the Black Power revolution as explicitly masculine. As cultural critic Michelle Wallace states, Stokely Carmichael “was a black man with an erect phallus, and he was pushing it up in America’s face …. Stokely was the nightmare America had been dreading-the black man seizing his manhood, the black man as sexual, virile, strong, tough and danger- ous” (Wallace 36). While a vocal black feminist, Wallace’s critique of the Black Power movement has been hotly debated; Black Power seemed to call for virulent race pride, physical resistance to white supremacy and colonialism, and raising the social and political con- sciousness of the entire race. Black Power was also known for its emphasis on masculine characteristics and misogynistic tendencies.2 At the same time that the Black Power movement was sweeping through the cultural consciousness of America, the film industry was changing under the burden of financial difficulties. With the rising popularity of television, the failure of several huge Hollywood block- busters, and the retirement of older members of management, major studios were suffering severe monetary losses. Desperate to get back into the black, the Majors devised new strategies for making money. The Majors’ first attempt at profit was proposing building massive movie complexes in the suburbs, much like what we see today. However, as a result of the 1948 Paramount Consent Decrees, legislation that broke up vertical integration (studios owning every tier of movie production from the studio lots to the movie theaters), studios could not build movie theaters without the explicit consent of the courts. When they Superflies into Superkillers 261 proposed building theaters in the suburbs, the courts refused (Stanfield 286). Therefore, the only way that the studios could profit was through the theaters that already existed, those in urban locations. By the 1970s, urban centers in the United States were comprised mostly of African-American blue-collars workers, the white and black middle class by this time having begun moving to the suburbs. Therefore, the audiences for films at urban theaters were going to be comprised of mostly black, working class customers.