Ikaan tense, aspect and manner Sophie Salffner 137 Chapter 7 – Tense, aspect and manner encoding in Ikaan beyond verbal inflection Sophie Salffner, School of Oriental and African Studies Keywords: Nigeria, Ikaan, tense, aspect, manner 1 Introduction1 This paper reports on aspects of the verbal morphology of Ikaan, an endangered minority language spoken in Nigeria. In addition to regular and obligatory tense- aspect-mood inflection, Ikaan shows a range of optional morphemes in the verb which translate with adverbial meanings such as „just‟, „still‟, „again‟ or „too‟ but do not fit the category of adverbs in the language. These morphemes trigger a range of changes in the verbal affixes and the verbal root, both at the segmental and the tonal level. Neither the inflectional nor the semantic side of the tense- aspect-mood system has been described yet, and nothing has previously been written about the meaning, classification and effects of the additional adverb-like morphemes. While this paper cannot give an exhaustive description and analysis of these morphemes, it provides an overview and some preliminary hypotheses about these morphemes. The first section of the paper gives background on the Ikaan language, on the context in which the research presented here was carried out and on the aims and objectives of the paper. The second section gives an overview of the tense and aspect categories that have so far been identified in Ikaan. Section 3 presents a 1 Thanks are due to the people of Ikakumọ (Ondo State), in particular to Mr Fred Adekanye and Mr Festus O. Ọbaudẹ, for enabling me to learn their language, for their patience with me and for their company while I was living in their village. I am grateful to the Endangered Languages Documentation Programme and the Gesellschaft für bedrohte Sprachen, who have generously funded my fieldwork and part of the research for this project, and the School and Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) and the Arts and Humanities Research Council, who have provided funding for my PhD research. This paper has previously been presented at the Jos Linguistics Circle in Nigeria and at the ELAP PhD Research Seminar at SOAS. I gratefully acknowledge the feedback from both audiences. Shanti Úlfsbjörninn, Yun-Hsin Chang and Stuart McGill read a draft of this paper and gave helpful comments. All errors and faults in the analysis naturally remain my own. 138 Advances in Minority Language Research in Nigeria range of morphemes that add additional meaning differences to the basic tense and aspect categories. Section 4 discusses hypotheses about the morphosyntactic classification of the morphemes presented in Section 3. The Ikaan speakers and their language The language variety described here is called Ikaan [ k n]. A member of the ethnic community is called an Okaan [ k n the plur l for this is k n k n]. There is no known relation to the Akan of Ghana. Ikaan is a dialect of Ukaan, a language of the Benue-Congo family of the Niger-Congo phylum. Ukaan is spoken in south-western Nigeria in five villages: Ikakumọ and Ayanran, both located in the Akoko Edo Local Government Area of Edo State, and Ikakumọ, Auga and Iṣẹ, which are located in the Akoko North Local Government Area of Ondo State. The Ikaan dialect is spoken in the two Ikakumọ villages, the other three villages each have their own dialect. Not all dialects are mutually intelligible. The area where Ikaan is spoken is highly multilingual. Yoruba is spoken throughout the region as a lingua franca, the use of English and Ebira is widespread and there are many minority languages spoken in neighbouring villages. In addition to its minority status, Ikaan is also an endangered language because the language is not learned by many children and among the parent generation many speech genres that are not used every day are being lost. The Ukaan language has received some attention by linguists interested in the classification of the language within the Benue-Congo family though no conclusive classification has been agreed on yet. Beyond classification, linguistic research on aspects of the structure of the language has been carried out by Taiwo (1988, pp.69), Abiọdun (1989, 1997, 1999), Oyetade (1996), Kelsey (2007) and Borchardt (2009) and myself. None of this research has looked at the verb system and in general little is known on the grammar, the lexicon and the use of the language. Ikaan has nine vowels, all of which may be short or long, oral or nasal. Nasal vowels are restricted in their distribution and do not occur word-initially. There is ATR („advanced tongue root‟) vowel harmony in the language, the distribution of vowels into ATR sets is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Vowels and ATR harmony +ATR –ATR unrounded rounded unrounded rounded high i u ɪ ʊ mid e o ɛ ɔ low a Ikaan tense, aspect and manner Sophie Salffner 139 Ikaan is a tone language with two tones, a high tone (H) and a low tone (L), both of which are underlyingly present. Like in many other tone languages, two low tones that are adjacent to one another are merged into one underlying tone that is attached to a number of surface tones. Low tones can be attached to tone-bearing units or they may be unattached floating L tones. Floating L adjacent to attached L merge into the attached L, whereas floating L adjacent to H cannot merge and stay afloat. Downstep occurs in Ikaan after floating low tones (non-automatic downstep) but there is no downstep after attached and overtly realised low tones in LH surface sequences (no automatic downstep). Downstep in Ikaan is complex and unusual for a number of other reasons, for more details see Salffner (2010, 2011). The word in Ikaan is minimally bimoraic. As most words consist of a vowel prefix followed by a root that is at least CV, they fulfil the minimal word requirement. However, as shown in Table 2, demonstratives have no vowel agreement prefix. Also, two of the possessive pronouns have roots which consist only of a consonant. These words would fail to meet the two-mora requirement for the minimal word if the vowels in the root or prefix were monomoraic. However, in these words the one remaining vowel surfaces bimoraically, as shown in (1).2 (1) nɛː 5.DEM.PROX ɛːn 5.DEM.DIST ɛː -dʒ 5-1S.POSS ɛː -n 5-3S.POSS Diachronically, this may be explained by compensatory lengthening to ensure that the requirement for the minimal word is met. Synchronically this has now probably lexicalised into words with bimoraic vowels. Ikaan nouns consist of a noun class prefix and a root. Noun roots have lexical tonal melodies which are mapped onto the nouns. The prefixes indicate six different nominal agreement classes which are maximally distinguished in the demonstratives and determiners, though classes O1 and O6 share the same prefix. An overview is given in Table 2. 2 For conventions on transcription and glossing and for a list of abbreviations used in this paper see the Appendix. 140 Advances in Minority Language Research in Nigeria Table 2: Noun classes and agreement classes Noun class Agreement class prefix DEM. PROX DET O 1 o-/ɔ- ː n A 2 a- ː n U 3 u-/ʊ- dɔː ʊ dɔn I 4 i-/ɪ- dɛː ɪd ɛn E 5 e-/ɛ- nɛː ɛn ɛn O 6 o-/ɔ- nɔː ɔn ɔn Verbs are also made up of a prefix and a root. Unlike nouns, however, verb roots are underlyingly toneless and receive their tonal melodies from inflectional tonal melodies – such systems re c lled “predict ble” by Kisseberth and Odden (2003:61). The verbal prefix is not considered to be a pronoun for a number of reasons. Firstly, the verbal prefix is generally monomoraic and therefore fails to meet the minimal word requirement. More importantly however, the verbal prefix co-occurs with overt nouns or noun phrases as subjects as shown in (2) and (3), and with overt pronouns, as shown in (4). (2) - - - ː-dʒ O1-[name] 3S.NFUT-eat.NFUT A2-beans 2-1S.POSS „Olu ate my beans‟. (3) ː -w - ː -dʒ n ː - n ʊ - E5-goat O1-wife 1-1S.POSS EPV 5.DEM.PROX 5.NFT-have.NFUT U3-trouble „This goat of my wife‟s is troublesome‟. (4) ː ʒ dʒ - ɛː - - ː - ː - 1S 1S.NFUT-sit.NFUT LOC- I4-school I4-school 4-small „I myself was in school, primary school.‟ The Ikaan pronouns are given in Table 3. Ikaan tense, aspect and manner Sophie Salffner 141 Table 3: Personal pronouns singular plural 1 ː ʒ ɔ 2 ɛːr ɔ ɔn 3 ːn n Verb roots can be followed by object suffixes. A list of object suffixes is given in Table 4. Table 4: Object suffixes singular plural 1 -dʒ -bɔ 2 -ɔ -mɔn 3 -n - n Unlike the subject agreement prefixes, object suffixes do not co-occur with overt objects but are used instead of object nouns. Still, they are not independent object pronouns. Evidence for their status as affixes firstly comes from the fact that they do not meet the minimal word requirement of two moras. Secondly, there is a specific tonal process that applies between the verb root and the object suffixes that does not apply to noun phrases. More details on the morphological structure of verbs are given in the next section. The canonical word order in Ikaan is SVO. 1.1 Research context The data presented here was collected during ten months of fieldwork conducted as part of my PhD in Linguistics within the Endangered Languages Academic Programme and the Endangered Languages Documentation Project of the Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project (HRELP).