The Dilemma of Revolution and Stabilisation: Mexico and the European Powers in the Obregón- Calles Era, 1920-28 Itzel Toledo García A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Essex November 2016 © Copyright 2016 Itzel Toledo García All rights reserved To my loving parents Ana María García López† and Miguel Toledo Velázquez, whose commitment to knowledge and education has been a source of inspiration throughout my academic journey. Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ v Abstract ................................................................................................................................ vii Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 Mexico and the World from the Porfirian Regime to the 1920s ......................... 31 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 31 1.2 The counterbalance project: Mexican-US-European triangle, 1876-1910 ................. 32 1.3 The reconfiguration of the Mexican-US-European triangle ....................................... 45 1.4 Post-Revolutionary Mexico and the diversification of relations in the 1920s ........... 58 1.4.1 Mexico and the US............................................................................................... 65 1.4.2 Mexico and Soviet Russia .................................................................................... 69 1.4.3 Mexico and the League of Nations ...................................................................... 77 1.4.4 Mexico and Latin America .................................................................................. 81 1.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 87 Chapter 2 The question of diplomatic recognition ............................................................... 90 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 90 2.2 On recognition ............................................................................................................ 95 2.3 The Agua Prieta Rebellion and its international relations ........................................ 101 2.4 Diplomatic recognition of Álvaro Obregón .............................................................. 113 2.5 Recognition and the visit of Plutarco Elías Calles to Europe ................................... 133 2.6 Plutarco Elías Calles and the British recognition ..................................................... 138 2.7 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 144 Chapter 3 The diplomacy of economic relations ............................................................... 152 3.1 On pragmatic and symbolic efforts .......................................................................... 152 3.2 General Mexican-European Powers economic concerns ......................................... 156 3.3 Pragmatic efforts ....................................................................................................... 164 3.3.1 The renegotiation(s) of the debt ......................................................................... 166 3.3.2 The question of Article 27 ................................................................................. 168 3.3.3 Conventions of Mixed Claims ........................................................................... 173 3.4 Symbolic efforts ....................................................................................................... 183 3.4.1 Negotiations for new Treaties of Amity, Commerce and Navigation ............... 184 3.4.2 Mexican Consuls in Europe ............................................................................... 192 3.4.3 Chambers of Commerce .................................................................................... 197 3.4.4 Calles in Europe: contact with economic actors ................................................ 201 3.4.5 Visits by important figures................................................................................. 208 3.5Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 214 Chapter 4 Cultural Diplomacy- an international process ................................................... 218 4.1 On Cultural Diplomacy ............................................................................................ 218 4.2 A comparison of two Mexican cultural diplomatic approaches ............................... 226 4.3 The strengthening of intellectual links ..................................................................... 234 4.3.1 Diplomacy and the Fine Arts ............................................................................. 243 4.3.2 Diplomacy and education .................................................................................. 250 4.3.2.1 Libraries and bookstores ............................................................................. 251 4.3.2.2 Scientific Exchange ..................................................................................... 255 4.3.2.3 European alternatives in private education ................................................. 258 4.4 The strengthening of cultural ties ............................................................................. 262 4.4.1 Official cultural celebrations.............................................................................. 264 4.4.2 Cultural representations in the press, theatres and films .................................... 267 4.4.3 Visits of official and non-official figures........................................................... 276 4.5 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 284 Final Reflections ................................................................................................................ 288 Sources ............................................................................................................................... 302 Acknowledgements I am thankful with the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) for sponsoring my doctoral studies (2013-16) at the University of Essex. I also want to thank the institutions that helped me cover the expenses for my research trips in archives and libraries: the Short-Term Research Programme at the Nettie Lee Benson Collection by the University of Texas, Austin and the Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (November 2012), the Complementary Scholarship of the Secretaría de Educación Pública (2014-15) and the German Academic Exchange Service (August-September 2015). I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Emeritus Professor Brian R. Hamnett who in monthly discussions encouraged me to think more, look beyond, work harder, be critical and dedicated in the process of writing my manuscript. His kindness and patience allowed me to widen my approach to diplomatic history and reaffirm my vocation for History. Also, I want to thank my supervisory board members Professor Matthias Röhrig Assunção and Dr Fiona Venn who motivated me to look beyond “proper” diplomatic concerns to questions of culture and economy. I have been lucky to have a splendid committee that showed patience, solidarity and support every six months. I want to state my deepest gratitude to Dr Paolo Riguzzi, since it was in a conversation with him in January 2012 that I decided to study Mexican foreign policy in the 1920s and he was kind to give me feedback on each of my drafts in the last four years. I also appreciate that Professor Stefan Rinke extended the invitation to the Latin American Institute of the Free University in Berlin and spent time discussing the structure of my thesis. Likewise, I want to thank Dr Felix Schnell who gave me feedback on Chapter 2 and helped me realise connections between Mexican-Soviet and German-Soviet relations in the 1920s. I would also like to thank Dr Silvestre Villegas Revueltas for encouraging me to do the PhD at Essex and supporting my academic formation as a Historian since he was my BA supervisor. In this regard, I´m thankful with Dr José Enrique Covarrubias and Dr Lucrecia Infante. I also extend my gratitude to Dr Javier Rico Moreno whose courses on historiography and Mexican contemporary history were of great influence on this thesis. I want to extend my gratitude to the members of the “Is IR Without History Empty? Is History Without IR Blind?” research seminar series at King´s College London (October 2015-February 2016), it was a brilliant interdisciplinary experience that marked a breaking point in my thesis. I especially appreciate Ana Albulescu´s interest in discussing with me about the difference between recognition of governments and states. Furthermore, I am deeply indebted to Lisa Willis and Karen Shields at the University of Essex-History Department who solved my administrative inquiries and to the staff of the Fideicomiso Archivo Plutarco Elías Calles, the Archivo Histórico de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, the Archivo General de la Nación, the National Archives, the Archives diplomatiques-La Courneuve, the Politisches