EMERGING TECHNOLOGY Virgin Orbit uses a modified aircraft to launch satellites into low Earth orbit © Virgin Orbit THE FINAL FRONTIER Spaceports represent an ingenious solution to the logistical challenges of launching small satellites into orbit. Neil Cumins reports on two spaceports at opposite ends of the UK that are using different methods to launch low Earth orbit satellites into space. INGENIA ISSUE 82 MARCH 2020 31 THE FINAL FRONTIER EMERGING TECHNOLOGY GEOSTATIONARY OR LOW EARTH ORBIT Geostationary orbit satellites travel at the same angular velocity as Earth, remaining fixed over the same location. They can only cover latitudes between +70 degrees and –70 degrees from the equator, but a single satellite can reach a third of the planet. They travel from west to east, at a speed of around three kilometres a second. These satellites are ideally suited for weather forecasting and radio and TV broadcasting. Because one satellite can cover There are currently over 2,200 satellites such a large area, ground-based infrastructure is simpler and does not need to track the satellite. orbiting the Earth, performing a variety of A low Earth orbit satellite has an altitude of 1,000 kilometres or less – it could be as low as 160 kilometres above Earth. These civil, commercial and state-level functions satellites take approximately 90 minutes to circle the Earth. A constellation of low Earth orbit satellites can provide 24/7 coverage around the world. Because they are orbiting in a less harsh environment, the satellites themselves can be less robust. The uses for these small satellites range from remote sensing and planetary observation through to insurance and communications. For instance, mobile phone networks are investigating the potential for launching low Earth orbit satellites to support 5G networks, augmenting terrestrial base station antennas and small cell units broadcasting over millimetre Next time you find yourself of the horizontal launch pads and achieve escape wave frequencies. Low Earth orbit is much better for data- admiring the stars on a clear vehicle. So, how do horizontal velocity, taking advantage of streaming activities such as 5G and other two-way voice and evening, take a moment launches work, and why are the these benefits. data services, since they can transfer data much quicker than to think about a manmade spaceports they depart from geostationary satellites, thanks to their lower orbit. Because 5G contribution to the skies above being developed from Cornwall will power everything from autonomous vehicles to remotely us. There are currently over to the Shetland Islands? The Shetland Space Centre plans to build and operate a satellite launch site and ground station on the UK’s most BEST OF BRITISH operated surgical equipment, potential outages are unthinkable; 2,200 satellites orbiting the northerly island, Unst © Shetland Space Centre The UK has long punched above satellites could provide an always-on backup to our terrestrial Earth, performing a variety of smaller and lighter, the These horizontal take-offs can its storage canisters contribute its weight in terms of satellite infrastructure. In the coming years, companies like Amazon, civil, commercial and state- THE NEXT necessity for vertical launches be carried out by existing high- most of the rocket’s weight on manufacturing. Today, one in SpaceX and OneWeb are planning to launch mega-constellations level functions. However, rather GENERATION has diminished, and horizontal altitude vehicles, such as a plane the launch pad. This further eight satellites in the skies was featuring thousands of data-distributing small satellites. than occupying a traditional Since 1957, when Sputnik I was launches have risen to or a balloon. These have already increases the four forces of manufactured in the UK. The Low Earth orbit satellites can be in polar orbit– where the geostationary orbit 36,000 successfully launched from the prominence. While fuel volumes done the hard work of escaping flight acting on the launch space division of Airbus has satellite passes above, or nearly above, both poles of the Earth kilometres above the equator, Baikonur Cosmodrome in what vary according to factors such as the densest part of Earth’s vehicle (weight, lift, thrust and facilities in Stevenage, while on each orbit, from north to south. The alternative is a Sun- over two thirds of these is now Kazakhstan, vertical take- the weight of the payload, a vast atmosphere and its strongest drag), all of which are negative American-based Spire Global synchronous orbit, a nearly polar orbit that ensures the satellite satellites are in low Earth orbit, off has been the only practical amount of energy is expended gravitational pull. An upper factors in terms of everything manufactures all its satellites remains in-sync with the Sun as the planet moves, so the Earth less than 2,000 kilometres above method of launch suitable accelerating vertically from atmosphere launch location from aerodynamics to fuel at Glasgow’s fittingly-named is always illuminated by the Sun at the same angle from the the Earth’s surface. for large satellites. However, standstill to 26,700 kilometres means that microsatellites can consumption. Skypark. Remarkably, Glasgow satellite. For launching into polar and sun-synchronous orbits, the Despite occupying a far recent advances in power and per hour (the minimum speed be launched into low Earth A high-altitude launch also builds more small satellites than higher the latitude the better. lower altitude, low Earth orbit utility have resulted in smaller required for a satellite to enter orbit comparatively affordably, permits the use of efficient fuels any other city in Europe, with Sun-synchronous orbit satellites have traditionally and lighter satellites. A small a circular orbit 800 kilometres potentially opening the market that are banned from surface the space industry contributing 600 to 800 km high been launched into space satellite is defined as one with above Earth’s surface), while to smaller companies with launches because of their almost £15 billion to the UK using rockets, just like their a mass less than 500 kilograms, travelling through the five layers limited funding. The launch relative toxicity. Stratospheric air economy each year. Indeed, the geostationary cousins. These and almost three quarters of of our atmosphere. It’s long vehicle itself can be safely launches aren’t impacted by the UK Space Agency has set itself Geostationary orbit 36,000 km high inefficient vertical-lift propulsion satellite launches planned for been accepted that high-altitude returned to Earth and reused, tropospheric weather that could a target of boosting this to over devices burn immense amounts the next decade will be in this launches from the troposphere with no parts shed (or at risk otherwise cause delays, and £40 billion by 2030, which would of energy attempting to escape category. Some are the size of (11 kilometres up, or around of falling back to Earth). This there are no issues with noise comprise a 10th of the global Earth’s gravitational pull. For a shoebox, weighing as little as 37,000 feet) require far less fuel to distinguishes them from when a rocket is launched from space economy. Polar orbit over 60 years, governments 25 kilograms, yet they’re often send a satellite into orbit. Indeed, vertical take-off rockets, whose 10,600 metres in the air. Yet while the UK leads the 200 to 1,000 km high have been experimenting with able to complete tasks that air launch technology has already immense fuel canisters are Across the UK, companies world in satellite manufacturing alternatives to rocket-based would have been the domain underpinned a number of discarded as they struggle to and entrepreneurs have been and data processing, it has satellite launches, and recent of geostationary satellites just pioneering inner-space projects, escape the planet’s gravitational developing innovative ways never had a launch site capable The diagram shows the path and heights of different satellite orbits technological developments 20 years ago. from the US Air Force’s X-15 to pull. There’s also an added of launching small satellites of sending these delicate have heralded the arrival As satellites have become Orbital’s Pegasus rocket. irony that this propellant and without having to build launch scientific objects into space. 32 INGENIA INGENIA ISSUE 82 MARCH 2020 33 THE FINAL FRONTIER EMERGING TECHNOLOGY Virgin Orbit’s Cosmic Girl takes off from Spaceport Cornwall © Spaceport Cornwall Vertical launch sites need to the satellite launch vehicle. Its take off from Cornwall and travel carried upper-stage air launch be located in vast, remote (and status was secured by factors to any desired location before systems. ideally equatorial) regions, and including immediate access discharging its payload into a Virgin’s LauncherOne rocket every launch was state-funded to the North Atlantic with no designated orbit. is capable of carrying a gross until the 1980s. The private national borders to traverse, Spaceport Cornwall uses the payload of 500 kilograms. As this sector has grown in stature relatively uncongested airspace, existing 2.7 kilometre runway is dropped from the aircraft’s Launch engineers monitor data screens on Cosmic Girl’s flight deck © Virgin Orbit since then, but the continuing and a suitably lengthy runway at Cornwall Airport Newquay to wing, the main stage engine not new, the dwindling size of acting as Virgin Orbit’s European two kilometres from Britain’s required