TOWARDS A RE-DISCOVERY OF THE PUBLIC SPHERE: MYANMAR/BURMA’S ‘EXILE’ MEDIA’S COUNTER-HEGEMONIC POTENTIAL AND THE U.S. NEWS MEDIA’S RE-FRAMING OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY Brett R. Labbé A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2016 Committee: Oliver Boyd-Barrett, Advisor Neil Englehart Graduate Faculty Representative Joshua Atkinson Radhika Gajjala © 2016 Brett R. Labbé All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Oliver Boyd-Barrett, Advisor This study explores Myanmar/Burma’s “independent” “exile media’s” counter- hegemonic potential and relationship to public sphere formation amid their transition toward commercial models of organization. Employing a comparative content analysis of these media’s and mainstream American news media’s framing of Myanmar/Burma’s democratic reforms, this inquiry correspondingly seeks to gain insight into the nature news frame construction by Burmese exile and U.S. media. As this pursuit necessitates an understanding of the historical, economic, cultural, and technological contextual forces shaping such patterns (Mody, 1978; 1987; 1989; 2010), analysis of data was understood relative to an examination of Myanmar/Burma’s socio-historical context, prevailing public sphere, news framing, and political economy scholarship, participant observation of the country’s current media landscape, and interviews with the co-founders and senior editors of Myanmar/Burma’s exile media. Incorporating the U.S. invasion of Iraq, and culminating in President Barack Obama’s “landmark” visit to Myanmar/Burma, 2003-2012 was selected as the overarching timeframe for investigation. The headlines, by-lines, and dates of 323 New York Times and 24 USA Today articles were examined through qualitative content analysis. Furthermore, January 2011 through December 2012 was selected as a sub-sample timeframe for an in-depth qualitative analysis of relevant frames. Eighty-nine (New York Times = 83; USA Today = 6) “mainstream U.S. media” and 90 “exile media” articles (The Irrawaddy = 37; Mizzima News = 30; Democratic Voice of iv Burma = 23) were analyzed through a deductive application of a coding instrument constructed through an initial pilot study. This investigation finds that Myanmar/Burma’s exile media have long been predicated on “bottom-up” and “horizontal flows” of communication, in turn embodying the tenants of “alternative media” and “participatory” and “development journalism”. While not occupying the unique location between state and market personified by Habermas’ ideal public sphere, these media have nonetheless cultivated discursive terrains that may be said to represent “alternative public spheres”. Despite their recent transition toward commercial models of organization, their history of success in bypassing the state’s monopoly over information and their current role within the country’s media reforms demonstrates that these media have and continue to possess counter-hegemonic influence. Furthermore, this study revealed the longstanding presence of a “War on Terror frame” inherently connected to a “human rights frame” within American media’s coverage of Myanmar/Burma. These two interconnected frames were in turn found to have been supplanted by a “China conflict frame” following the country’s democratic reforms, one that served to reposition the United States within a “Cold War” narrative surrounding an ideological confrontation between two global superpowers. v This dissertation is dedicated to the people of Myanmar/Burma. I would like to express my gratitude to my former advisor Dr. Bella Mody, whose guidance and encouragement allowed me to begin this journey. I would also like to express my appreciation to my advisor Dr. Boyd- Barrett, whose continued wisdom and guidance has proved invaluable. Thank you to my parents Linda and Ronald, my sister Michelle, and my brother-in-law Jeremy, without your unwavering support this dissertation would not have been possible. Thank you to my Amherst friends who taught me how to dream an impossible dream. Thank you SangHee for making this journey a beautiful one. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..... 1 Statement of the Problem & Rational of Study……………………..... .................... 3 Organization of Study…………………………………………………………..... ... 6 CHAPTER I: BACKGROUND OF STUDY…………………………………………..... ... 9 Myanmar/Burma………………………………………………………………..... ... 9 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 9 Dynastic Era: 1044-1855……………………………………………………. 13 Colonial Era: 1885-1948…………………………………………………….. 16 Democratic Republic: 1948-1962.………………………………………….. 20 Military Rule: 1962-1988….……………………………………………….. 21 Military Rule: 1988-2010.………………………………………………….. 25 Democratic Reforms: 2010-Present..……………………………………….. 29 Media Landscape………..………………………………………………….. 31 Media Reforms…………..………………………………………………….. 39 Transnational Activism….………………………………………………….. 43 Myanmar/Burma’s ‘Exile Media’.………………………………………….. 44 The Democratic Voice of Burma……………..…………………….. 47 The Irrawaddy News Magazine…………………………………….. 51 Mizzima News……………..……………………………………….. 53 Discussion……………………………………………………………………..... ..... 59 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………………………………… 64 vii Introduction.……………………………………………..... ...................................... 64 The Political Economy of the Media……………………………………………..... 64 Social Change & Historical Transformation…..……………………………. 66 Totality of Social Relations…………………………………………………. 69 Moral Philosophy……..…………………………………………………….. 69 Social Praxis……………………..………………………………………….. 70 Entry Processes…………….……………………………………………….. 70 Commodification..………………………………………………….. 70 Spatialization………………..……………………………………….. 71 Structuration……..………………………………………………….. 71 Cultural Studies…………..………………………………………………….. 72 Cultural Hegemony…..….………………………………………………….. 73 Base/Superstructure……………..………………………………………….. 73 Power…………….…..….………………………………………………….. 75 Critical Orientation.……………..………………………………………….. 75 Discussion………...……………..………………………………………….. 76 Public Sphere Theory……………………………………………………………..... 77 Alternative Public Spheres………………………………………………….. 77 Alternative Media………………..………………………………………….. 80 International Alternative Media…………………………………….. 85 Alternative Internet…………..………….………………………….. 86 Neoliberalism……………………………………………………………………..... 88 Modernization & Development…………………………………………………..... 90 viii Democratization & the Media………………………………………………..... ....... 93 U.S. Foreign Affairs News Frames……………………………………………..... ... 96 Discussion………………………..………………………………………….. 103 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………..... ......... 105 Research Questions………………………………………………………..... ........... 107 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………………………….. 108 Introduction……………………………………………..... ....................................... 108 Philosophical Foundation………………..…………………………………………. 108 Research Strategy……….………………..…………………………………………. 110 Data Collection………….……….……..………………………..…………………. 112 Pilot Study…………..….………………..……………………….…………………. 121 Frames…………………………..…………………….…….………………. 123 Conflict Frame….…………..……………………………………….. 123 Human Interest Frame.……...………...…………………………….. 124 Morality Frame….…………..……………..……………………….. 124 Economic Consequence Frame…………………………………….... 124 Responsibility Frame……....……………………………………….. 124 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS………………..……………………….….……………………. 126 Introduction……………………………………………..... ....................................... 126 New York Times & USA Today Coverage: 2003-2012,,……….………………….. 127 ‘The Lady’ Under Attack…………..…………………….…………………. 129 Military ‘Junta’……..….………………………………….…….………….. 130 U.S., Global Defender of Freedom & Democracy………….……………….. 132 ix Analysis………………….………………………………….……………….. 134 New York Times & USA Today Coverage: 2011-2012…………………………….. 135 Conflict Frame...………..……………………..………..…………..………. 136 Ethnic Conflict.….………………………………………………….. 137 China Conflict……..…………………….………………………….. 139 U.S.-China Conflict…….……………….………………………….. 141 Attribution of Responsibility Frame.…..………………….…….………….. 145 Catchphrases…………………………….………………………….. 146 Human Interest Frame…………….……………………….…….………….. 147 President Thein Sein…………………….………………………….. 148 Cosmopolitan Democracy……………….………………………….. 153 Aung San Suu Kyi….…..……………….………………………….. 162 Morality Frame……..…………….……………………….…….………….. 168 Economic Consequence Frame…………………………….…….………….. 169 Exile Media Coverage: 2010-2012………………………………………………….. 171 Conflict Frame.........…..………………………………..…………..………. 172 Armed Ethnic Conflict…..………………………………………….. 173 Ethnic Persecution……………………….………………………….. 176 Government-Population………………….………………………….. 177 China Conflict…..……………………….………………………….. 181 Attribution of Responsibility Frame……………………….…….………….. 182 Human Interest Frame…………….……………………….…….………….. 184 Aung San Suu Kyi……………………….………………………….. 184 x President Thein Sein…………………….………………………….. 185 ‘Impoverished’ Population……………….………………………….. 186 President Obama & Secretary Clinton..….………………………….. 187 Archetype Metaphor…………………….………………………….. 188 Morality Frame…………..……….……………………….…….………….. 191 Economic Consequence Frame…...……………………….…….………….. 194 Interviews with Burma/Myanmar’s Exile Media…….……….…………………….. 197 Mizzima News………………..………………………….…………………. 202 Democratic Voice of Burma……………………………….…….………….. 212 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION……………………………….……………………………. 218 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….. 218 Public Sphere Formation…………………………………………………………….. 219 Exile Media’s Commercial Transition………………………………………………. 227 Comparing U.S. & Exile News Frames….…………………………………………. 231 Discussion…………………………..……………………………………………….