FAIR ALLOCATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IN CITIES WITH HIGH INEQUALITY Abstract In the field of transport justice, there are distinct approaches on how to analyze transport system fairness, usually focused on differences in accessibility levels throughout an urban area. Since most research on transport justice is done by scholars in Western countries with a large middle class and a relatively small share of low-income households, this thesis aims to adapt Karel Martens’ (2012; 2017) work to the reality of a city with high income inequality using the available data. In part because of its rich data set, the young car- centered city of Brasilia has been used as a case study. Its many neighborhoods have been ranked and the neighborhood(s) with the highest need for public transport improvements is selected. The actual introduction of a new mode of transport in a neighborhood with high accessibility is used as a real-life comparative of where these investments should be placed if following an approach based on fairness. Keywords Transport justice; accessibility; distributive justice; public transport Master Thesis Spatial Planning Urban and Regional Mobility Nijmegen School of Management Radboud University Arthur Vilela Santos S1020549 Radboud University – Nijmegen School of Management 09.04.2021 MSc Spatial Planning – Urban and Regional Mobility Master Thesis Colophon Description Master Thesis Spatial Planning Author Arthur Vilela Santos Student number S1020549 E-mail [email protected] [email protected] Date April 2021 Status Final Academic supervisor Dr. Karel Martens Key words Transport justice; accessibility; distributive justice; public transport 2 Radboud University – Nijmegen School of Management 09.04.2021 MSc Spatial Planning – Urban and Regional Mobility Master Thesis Summary This master thesis describes how fairness in the (public) transport system can be assessed in a developing-world context. The research is based on diverse literature regarding its conceptual foundation and follows an adapted guideline presented in Karel Martens’ 2017 book Transport Justice. These guidelines and rules were altered to better fit the scope and the time frame of the research. The research is connected to the transport justice theory not only in its methodology, but also in its purpose and focus, since the motivation for this research lies in the acknowledgement of transport as a basic right. The adapted guidelines for fairness assessment were applied in the case study of Brasilia, Brazil’s capital. The city’s government regularly conducts a household level survey of all its neighborhoods which includes data regarding travel patterns and income levels. Combined with this survey data, public transport system information, such as bus routes and their frequencies, was collected from the city’s transport agency and double checked through open source public transport websites. The thesis relies on secondary data analysis since no information could be extracted in loco due to the distance, time and cost constraints of doing so. The methodology is based on a positivist approach, focusing on quantitative data rather than qualitative. The extracted and handled data is translated into scores for easier comparison and into visual representations such as maps and graphics to create a clearer understanding of patterns of fairness and unfairness across geographical space. When comparing final scores, it becomes visible that the high-income inequality of the developing-world cities – as exemplified by Brasilia’s case – is reproduced in terms of access to public transport, accessibility, and travel time, with high income population generally receiving better service than their less advantaged counterparts. 3 Radboud University – Nijmegen School of Management 09.04.2021 MSc Spatial Planning – Urban and Regional Mobility Master Thesis Preface To be inserted in a new cultural environment and to write an academic research in a foreign can be daunting, especially if done alone. Beyond extensive reference lists, research projects are only possible with the support of many people. I would like to thank my newfound friends that shared this experience with me, with special thanks to Freddy Miller for breathing happiness into our classes. The help that Renata Nogueira provided is also immense and goes beyond writing together, but as a reminder of perseverance and constant self-improvement. I am thankful for my supervisor Karel Martens which helped and guided me in this long writing process, being understanding of my struggles and providing clear and constructive comments. Besides this thesis, the influence of his works has reached me even before the master’s course and points our field of study towards a more humane perspective. Life continues along the academic studies and both would not have been possible and enjoyable without the wise, comforting and supporting presence of Kyra Sendler. Her approach to life and to facing mental and practical struggles is lifting and was crucial for the completion of this research. Being away from your home, country and continent can be extremely hard. Continuing my studies was only possible with the help of my family. Seeing my parents and my sister pursue their studies and careers, which also lead them to different lands, set an example to be followed. Their infinite patience and understanding carried me all the way. I dedicate this thesis to them. Arthur Vilela Santos Nijmegen, April 2021 4 Radboud University – Nijmegen School of Management 09.04.2021 MSc Spatial Planning – Urban and Regional Mobility Master Thesis List of Abbreviations RA Região Administrativa IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística SEMOB Secretaria de Transporte e Mobilidade UN United Nations IPHAN Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional HDI Human Development Index TOD Transport Oriented Development AOD Accessibility Oriented Development PDAD Pesquisa Distrital por Amostra de Domicílios 5 Radboud University – Nijmegen School of Management 09.04.2021 MSc Spatial Planning – Urban and Regional Mobility Master Thesis Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Colophon .................................................................................................................................................................. 2 Summary .................................................................................................................................................................. 3 Preface ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4 List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 6 List of Figures and Tables .................................................................................................................................. 8 Figures .................................................................................................................................................................. 8 Tables .................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Graphics ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 1.Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.1. Starting points......................................................................................................................................... 10 1.2. Research problem statement ............................................................................................................ 11 1.3. Scientific and societal relevance of the proposed research ................................................. 12 2. Literature review and theoretical framework ................................................................................... 14 2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 14 2.2. Accessibility-focused transport planning .................................................................................... 14 2.3. Transport Justice ................................................................................................................................... 15 2.3.1. Transport Planning Based on Principles of Justice ......................................................... 16 2.4. Mapping transport disadvantage .................................................................................................... 18 2.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 20 3. Methodology ...................................................................................................................................................