UOVS - SASOL -8 I\BLI DTEEK fiiiÊRrnE ËKSP~1PÏ:4.fo:~~~rl:r.:~~Gê:7N5~.'7~ . 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11III1 IGEEN OlVi$ TANO IGHEO E lJ'T ["lO! 1997052814012201600019 ~. J01..E·.t=.:vs ~,~IVPFR I.V.Ol")-" f'-'p: ~ . r:.t\ .. _'. VII •. '...1__ \I l.U ..• oL • w .....,'._-c -':'''_~~.l:lilt~~\o~'':J:.~ THE lLllBERATIlON SONG, WITH SPECIAlL REFERENCE TO \ THOSE USED BY THE AFRICAN NATIONAlL CONGRESS, THE iNKATHA FREEDOM PARTY AND THE PAN AFRXCANiST CONGRESS. by ANNE-MARIE GRAY (student number: 9430059) submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree: MAGISTER MUSICOLOGIAE in the FACULTY OF ARTS (DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC) at the " UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE SUPERVISOR: DR G.J.L. HEUNIS 'NOVEMBER 1996 Univer~it~it van die Cran j :.:·~·v(.~/:=:,1:.?: ~ t B~..~;·.·_;'·i'··~:·;i,\jfLl N 09 DEC 1997 , uovs S !\SCL Bl BLIOTEEK ~.".oSI5"'""' 11 • .., . .,_.......,:111----....1 782.421590968 BRA SOJLI DEO GLORIA + ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS o My supervisor Dr GJ.L. Heunis for his guidance throughout the study. Without his knowledge this project would not have been accomplished. o Prof. D.P. Wessels of the Political Science Faculty at the University of the Orange Free State for the critical insight he provided for Chapter 3. His guidance was essential for this section and I am most grateful for his willingness to assist. o Adie Pretorius, for reading the various drafts so fastidiously. Her critical insight was of immense value at such a late stage in the research procedure. o Dr L. Stears for his enthusiasm, encouragement and help in the initial stages of the research. o Christo Kotzé for his help with transcriptions, final editing, and typesetting. Without his assistance this thesis would not have been printed. o The Suid-Afrikaanse Onderwysersunie (KZN) for financial assistance. Opinions expressed in this publication and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not attributed to this union. o Librarians and archivists at several institutions in South Africa, who were always willing and helpful. A special word of appreciation to Graham Goddard at the Mayibuye Centre (University of the Western Cape), for his help with the videos and the fact that he granted me permission to spend so much time in the video centre. o To my family and friends for their encouragement and forbearance throughout this project. A special word of thanks to my husband, David for his support and encouragement in all manner of circumstances. -ii- TABlLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATIONS OF THE STUDY 1.1 INTRODUCTION. .. 1 1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY . .. 1 1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM 2 1.4 SPECIFIC AIMS 2 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . .. 2 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 3 1.7 TERMINOLOGY. .. 5 1.8 RELATED STUDIES 6 1.9 RESEARCH CONVICTION . .. 7 CHAPTER 2 AN OVERVIEW OF WORLD LIBERATION SONGS 2.1 INTRODUCTION 9 2.2 UNDERLYING ASPECTS OF LIBERATION MUSIC 10 2.2.1 CATHARSIS 10 2.2.2 MUSIC AS AN INSTRUMENT OF POWER. .. 11 2.2.2.1 Music Energises and Empowers 12 2.2.2.2 Music Manipulates Emotionally 12 2.2.2.3 Music Creates Unity . .. 13 2.3 DIFFERENT GENRES OF LffiERATION MUSIC . .. 14 2.3.1 FOURTEENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY POPULAR STRUGGLES ... 14 2.3.2 REVOLUTIONARY AND DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENTS IN EUROPE AND BRITAIN. SEVENTEENTH TO NINETEENTH CENTURIES 16 2.3.2.1 French Revolution (1789 -1799) . .. 16 2.3.2.2 Industrial Revolution and the Growth of Trade Unions in Britain ............................................ 18 -iii- 2.3.3 PROGRESSIVE AND IMPERIALIST EUROPE AND BRITAIN, 1871 TO 1914 20 2.3.3.1 Industrial Workers in France 21 2.3.3.2 Industrial Workers in Britain 22 2.3.3.3 Industrial Workers in Ireland 23 2.3.4 FIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION IN AMERICA - INDUSTRIAL . .. 24 2.3.4.1 Early Songs (before 1900) .. .. 24 2.3.4.2 Wobbly Songs 25 2.3.5 WORLD WAR I AND ITS AFTERMATH IN EUROPE 28 2.3.5.1 Struggle Against Fascism. .. 28 2.4 BLACK FOLK MUSIC IN AMERICA 31 2.4.1 SONGS OF THE SLAVES 31 2.4.1.1 Work Songs . .. 33 2.4.1.2 Anti-pass Songs 33 2.4.1.3 War Songs. .. 33 2.4.1.4 Abolitionist Songs 35 2.4.1.5 Songs of the American Civil War (1861 to 1865) . .. 38 2.4.1.6 White Spirituals 41 2.4.2 SONGS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT OF THE 1950s AND 1960s ....................................................... 42 2.5 LIBERATION AND PROTEST MUSIC INTHE PERFORMING ARTS 49 2.5.1 GOVERNMENT INFLUENCE 49 2.5.1.1 Soviet Union 50 2.5.1.2 People's Republic of China 51 2.5.2 COMPOSERS' EXPRESSION OF INJUSTICE 52 2.5.2.1 Opera 53 2.5.2.2 Musicals and Operettas 54 2.5.2.3 Modern Entertainers with Protest and Liberation As A Theme. 56 2.5.2.4 Reggae as Liberation Music. .. 58 2.5.2.5 Rap as Liberation Music 59 2.5.2.6 Groups Performing for the South African Liberation Struggle . 59 2.5.2.7 Folk and Protest Songs . '. .. 62 2.6 CONCLUSION ................................................. 62 -iv- CHAPTER 3 THE HISTORY OF THE DUTCH AND AFRIKAANS LIBERATION SONG IN SOUTH AFRICA 3.1 INTRODUCTION. .. 65 3.2 OBSTACLES PERTAINING TO AFRIKAANS FOLK SONGS 65 3.2.1 THE PROBLEM OF EXTINCTION OF THE AFRIKAANS FOLK SONG .. 65 3.2.2 OBSTACLES ENCOUNTERED IN THE COLLECTION OF AFRIKAANS FOLK SONGS 68 3.3 THE HISTORY OF THE AFRIKANERS AS REFLECTED IN THEIR LffiERATION SONGS 72 3.3.1 SONGS SUNG DURING AND AFTER THE GREAT TREK 72 3.3.2 SONGS SUNG DURING THE PERIOD OF THE EARLY AFRIKANER TRADE UNIONISM 79 3.4 AFRIKANERS SYMPATHISE WITH THE BLACK LIBERATION STRUGGLE .. 86 3.4.1 WHITE AFRIKANER STUDENTS QUESTION RACIAL DISCRIMINATION ....................................................... 86 3.4.2 ALTERNATIVE AFRIKANER PERFORMERS AND COMPOSERS 89 3.5 CONCLUSION. .. 96 CHAPTER 4 LIBERATION AND PROTEST SONGS AMONG BLACK SOUTH AFRICANS 4.1 INTRODUCTION. .. 98 4.1.1 THE BLACK CULTURE IS A PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY 98 4.1.2 SONGS USED AS A COMMUNICATING PHENOMENON 98 4.1.3 SOLIDARITY AND UNITY AS EXPERIENCED BY THE PARTICIPATING CROWD 99 -v- 4.2 LIBERATION SONGS AS PEOPLE'S ART AND RESISTANCE ART 100 4.2.1 PEOPLE'S ART 100 4.2.2 RESISTANCE ART 101 . 4.3 PEOPLE'S ART - CATEGORIES 102 4.3.1 SONGS SUNG FROM 1900 UNTIL 1950 102 4.3.1.1 Imusic 103 4.3.1.2 IRagtime 104 4.3.1.3 IsiZulu 104 4.3.2 SONGS SUNG AFTER 1950 107 4.3.2.1 Songs with Traditional African Musical Elements 107 4.3.2.2 Toyi-toyi 109 4.3.2.3 Liberation Chant or Slogan 110 4.4 RESISTANCE ART - CATEGORIES 111 4.5 THE HISTORY OF BLACK RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA AND THE HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF LIBERATION SONGS AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE LIBERATION PROCESS 113 4.5.1 INTRODUCTION 113 4.5.2 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SANNC (SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE NATIONAL CONGRESS) 114 4.5.3 GENERAL CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING ALL BLACKS 123 4.5.3.1 Dipping in Durban 124 4.5.3.2 Industrial Conciliation Act of 1924 124 4.5.3.3 Government-controlled beer halls 125 4.5.3.4 Slums Clearance Act of 1933 126 4.5.3.5 Group Areas Act of 1950 126 4.5.3.6 Bantu Education Act of 1953 .. ~ 128 4.5.3.7 Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 128 4.5.4 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN COMMUNIST PARTY (SACP) 130 4.5.5 NEW CHALLENGES FOR THE AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) ....................................................... 132 4.5.6 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PAN" AFRICANIST CONGRESS (PAC) . 143 -vi- 4.5.7 ORGANISATIONS IN EXILE 144 4.5.7.1 The ANC in exile 144 4.5.7.2 The PAC in exile 150 4.5.7.3 The SACP in exile 151 4.5.8 INTERNAL BLACK POLITICS AFTER 1960 - WITHIN THE BROADER SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 153 4.5.8.1 South African Students Organisation (SASO) 153 4.5.8.2 Black Peoples' Convention (BPC) 155 4.5.8.3 Azanian People's Organisation (Azapo) 160 4.5.8.4 Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 160 4.5.8.5 United Democratic Front (UDF) ~ 162 4.5.8.6 Mass Democratic Movement (MDM) 164 4.5.8.7 Unbanning of the ANC and PAC 165 4.5.8.8 Slogans or chants 171 4.5.9 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BLACK LABOUR UNIONS 173 4.5.10 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE STRUGGLE AND THE SONGS THEY SANG 182 4.6 RESISTANCE ART 186 4.6.1 INTRODUCTION 186 4.6.2 GROUPS 188 4.6.2.1 Amandla Group 188 4.6.2.2 ANC Choir 189 4.6.2.3 K-Team (Kelloggs workers) 189 4.6.2.4 Tsakane Drama Group and LKB group 190 4.6.2.5 Adams College Groups . 190 4.6.2.6 Soloists 191 4.6.3 CONCLUSION 197 -vii- CHAPTER 5 THE TRANSCRIPTION AND CATEGORISATION OF A COLLECTION OF BLACK LIBERATION SONGS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 5.1 INTRODUCTION 199 5.2 TRANSCRIPTION 199 5.2.1 NOTATIONAL PROBLEMS 200 5.2.1.1 Pitch 201 5.2.1.2 Rhythm 201 5.2.1.3 Scales 202 5.2.1.4 Harmony 202 5.2.2 METHOD OF TRANSCRIPTION 203 5.3 CATEGORISATION 204 5.3.1 HISTORICAL CATEGORISATION 204 5.3.2 STYLISTIC CATEGORISATION 205 5.4 TRANSCRIPTION AND CATEGORISATION OF LIBERATION SONGS 205 5.4.1 IMUSIC 205 5.4.1.1 Si Lu Sapo or i Land Act 206 5.4.1.2 Nkosi Sikelel'iAfrika 209 5.4.1.3 Bashuka Ndabazini 212 5.4.1.4 Yekan' u mona, Nenzondo, Namagqubu 216 5.4.1.5 Vul'indhlela, Mnta ka Dube or Vulindhlela Mtaka Dube 220 5.4.1.6 Sanibona 223 5.4.2 IRAGTIME 228 5.4.2.1 Ingoduso .