FREEDOM FROM FAMINE The role of political freedom in famine prevention A thesis for the Cand. Polit. degree at the Department of Political Science, University of Oslo May 1997 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of writing this thesis I have benefited in various ways from a number of individuals. I would firstly like to thank my thesis-supervisor, Professor Bernt Hagtvet, for introducing me to this fascinating subject, for lengthy and stimulating discussions followed by invaluable comments on numerous drafts, and for his patience and encouragement at all times. A special thanks to Dr. Desmond McNeill for my attachment to the Centre for Development and the Environment (SUM), for many interesting discussions, and for constructive comments on innumerable drafts. I am grateful for the constant encouragement I have received from Prof. Francesco Kjellberg (UiO) with whom I have worked on a separate project and from whom I have learnt much about India. Thanks are also due to Prof. Emeritus Arne Næss for insightful discussions on a wide range of subjects. I also wish to thank the following individuals for having had the privilege of benefiting from their constructive comments, in conversation and in writing, on various aspects of this thesis: Prof. Raino Malnes (UiO), Prof. Edward Friedman (University of Wisconsin), Prof. Hans Blomkvist (University of Uppsala), Prof. Andrew Brennan (University of Western Australia), Dr. Asbjørn Eide (UiO), Prof. Knut Heidar (UiO), Dr. Arup Maharatna (University of Burdman) and Dr. Arild Ruud (SUM). Various members of the H-Asia discussion group have also been of enormous help in clarifying ideas and concepts and I would like to thank one of the editors, Prof. Frank Conlon (University of Washington), for his assistance. An intellectual debt is due to Prof. Amartya Sen, who has inspired me so much with his writings. The Centre for Development and the Environment (SUM) has not only provided me with office facilities but also an academic and a social milieu for which I am truly grateful. I will fondly remember the assistance and encouragement I received at all times from Liv Norderud and her staff, especially from Mr. Manhar Patel. Mr. Lóránd Lukács jr. has been most kind to assist with the layout of this thesis and has taught me much about computer programmes. ii Grateful acknowledgement is made to Mr. Fridtjov Beck Wiig and the Social Sciences Library at the University of Oslo, who worked so patiently and efficiently to procure all the reading material I requested. Both books and articles, whether from Norway or elsewhere, were made readily available to me in a matter of days. Karen C. Johansen and the staff at the Office for International Students has kindly extended help and assistance at all times during the course of my stay in Norway. I must acknowledge the wonderful privilege I have had of studying in Norge - a country that has become very dear to me - and the immense pleasure I have derived from learning "norsk" which, incidentally, is a delight to speak! My heartfelt gratitude to Reidunn Ljones for five wonderful years and for providing me with so much love, support and encouragement throughout. In addition, she has also helped to procure additional reading material from the Norwegian School of Management's main library. I am eternally indebted to Anne-Lise and Tiril Guttorm for having given me so much joy and happiness over the past year. They have always cheered me up when I needed cheering, and have given me much to look forward to. During my stay in Norway I have also been blessed with many friendships. In particular I am grateful to Terrence Baine, Ingrid Sætre, Morten Gulbrandsen, Kit Fai Næss, Ronny Lie, Ann Kristin Brunborg, Vegard Fløtre, Kristin Haraldstad, Tormod Burkey, and Janne Duesund for their love, support, and encouragement. Finally, Ava and Devdas Banik have been a constant source of encouragement, and their love has sustained me through this entire effort. "As different rivers have different sources, But all mingle their waters in the sea; So, Oh Lord, the different paths Which men take through different tendencies, All lead to thee." - Swami Vivekenanda Dan Banik Oslo, Norway May, 1997 iii CONTENTS 1. Introduction..................................................................................................1 1.1 The Argument.............................................................................................................. 2 1.2 The Purpose .................................................................................................................4 1.3 The "Puzzle of Indian Democracy"........................................................................... 5 1.4 Famines in India............................................................................................................ 6 1.4.1.The Bengal Famine, 1943-45.......................................................................... 8 1.4.2.Famine prevention in independent India ...................................................... 10 1.5 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 11 1.5.1.Selecting cases .............................................................................................. 12 1.5.2.State performance ......................................................................................... 13 1.5.3.Reliability and validity .................................................................................. 14 1.6 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................... 15 2. Definitions and Theories of Famine .........................................................17 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 17 2.2 Definitions and Dimensions ........................................................................................ 18 2.3 A Taxonomy of Famine Theories and Causes ........................................................ 19 2.4 Theories of Famine ..................................................................................................... 21 2.4.1.The Food Availability Decline (FAD) theories............................................. 22 2.4.2.Economic theories .......................................................................................... 23 2.4.3.Socio-political theories ................................................................................... 24 2.5 Definition of Famine as used in this Study.............................................................. 27 2. 6Summary of Theories of Famines ............................................................................ 30 3. Famine and Government Policy...............................................................32 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 32 3.2 The Political Causes of Famine ................................................................................ 33 3.2.1."Success" and "failure" of government famine policy .................................. 36 3.3 Policy Failure Due to Inappropriate Policies.......................................................... 37 3.3.1.Urban Bias theories ...................................................................................... 37 3.3.2.Agricultural Regulation ................................................................................ 38 3.4 Institutional Failure: the failure of government intervention............................... 39 3.5 Early Warning Systems (EWS) and Early Response............................................. 41 iv 3.5.1.Definitions and dimensions ........................................................................... 42 3.5.2.Formal EWS models versus alternative sources of warning......................... 43 3.6 Anticipation and Action: Sen's Theory ................................................................... 45 3.6.1.The role of a free media ................................................................................ 46 3.6.2.The question of relief agency ........................................................................ 47 3.6.3.Nature of politics in the country: India and China ....................................... 49 3.7 A Critique of Sen's theory ........................................................................................ 51 3.7.1.Politics and benefits of famine ...................................................................... 53 3.7.2.The withholding of relief : some possible explanations ................................ 54 3.8 Summary .................................................................................................................... 56 4. Political Freedom .......................................................................................59 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 59 4.2 Freedom and Politics................................................................................................. 60 4.2.1.Some preliminary definitions ........................................................................ 62 4.2.2."Negative" and "Positive" notions of freedom .............................................. 65 4.3 Locating Political Freedom within the Negative and Positive Notions................. 67 4.4 A Critique of Berlin's