Military Medicines: ANZAC Military Pharmacy, 1914-1918 Lee Ellen Doughty A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand 26 July 2019 Abstract Abstract Military pharmacy is a niche subset of the wider pharmacy profession. As a small component of the armed forces, the role encompasses unique military requirements beyond usual pharmacy practice. This thesis analyses the role and experience of New Zealand and Australian pharmacists who served as pharmacists during World War I (WWI), rather than as soldiers in combatant units. This history of the pharmacists of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) also provides a window into a little-recognised sector of the armed forces: supply and support. It argues that the role expectations of military pharmacists did not align with those of other serving health practitioners during the war, and that these disparities had their genesis in professional and social tensions within the civilian sphere. Historically, pharmacists have served as unseen or ‘silent’ specialist health professionals within military contexts. In this thesis, I consider social and cultural factors that shaped the wartime expectations of ANZAC military pharmacists throughout WWI. In particular, I examine the ‘invisibility’ of pharmacy, alongside perceptions of professionalism, educational pathway differences between pharmacists and other health practitioners, and the impact of social class and status on military rank. This analysis is based primarily on military and pharmacy records for WWI, together with period publications. A detailed database created for this thesis of all New Zealanders who served as pharmacists during the war provides case studies and conclusions to support the thesis. In particular, I argue that the military’s position on the role and status of pharmacists derived mainly from the perception that they were ‘in trade’. This sensibility i Abstract was problematic. Perceived mainly as purveyors of medicinal commodities, the role of pharmacists in maintaining the fighting strength of ANZAC forces was rarely appreciated, either during the conflict or in subsequent accounts. The supply of medicines and therapeutics as medical commodities is, however, intrinsically tied to the economics of war, which proved to be a growing concern as the conflict wore on. While New Zealand pharmacists were proscribed in their aspirations for advancement, I demonstrate that Australian pharmacists were most valued for their business skills, especially in supply, contracting, inventory control and cost savings. Throughout WWI, the professional skills and knowledge offered by New Zealand pharmacists was not recognised through granting of commissioned rank. In Australia, honorary commissions were only granted to pharmacists later in the war, primarily for logistical and managerial roles. By being ‘in trade’, pharmacists were considered to be of the wrong social class; military structure at the time largely reserved officer status for social or professional élites. Social assets were at least as important as merit for progression through the ranks. The drive for professional recognition through the granting of commissioned rank became the dominant political issue facing New Zealand and Australian military pharmacists, shaping their experiences throughout the war. Examining the underpinning cultural and social factors is thus key to understanding the marginalisation of pharmacists within the military framework. ii Acknowledgements Acknowledgements This thesis would not have come to fruition without the enthusiasm and support of a number of exceptional people and organisations who have been incredibly generous with their knowledge, time and guidance. To my supervisors, Senior Lecturer Susan Heydon (University of Otago), Professor Darryl Tong (University of Otago) and Dr Peter Hobbins (University of Sydney), I owe a significant debt of thanks for their wisdom, inspiration and guidance, not to mention their patience. I am grateful for having had the opportunity to work alongside them. I have also been privileged to receive valuable advice and counsel from my research advisor, Associate Professor Angela Wanhalla (University of Otago). I gratefully acknowledge the financial support I received during this journey with a Doctoral Scholarship from the University of Otago. Particular thanks go to the School of Pharmacy for their innovation in accepting a pharmacy history project rather than a science topic for a PhD candidature. I would also like to express my gratitude for financial support and enthusiastic encouragement from the Australian Army History Unit with a 2017-2018 Research Grant for travel and accommodation to Canberra to access primary archival material. I was also very fortunate to receive a Postgraduate Scholarship for digitisation of National Archives of Australia (NAA) records from the NAA in conjunction with the Australian Historical Association (AHA), which has been of immense assistance in accessing a range of material widely dispersed through different Australian State archival offices. iii Acknowledgements I have been extremely fortunate to have had keen interest in the project from a number of people within the pharmacy profession, both in New Zealand and Australia. Their insight and experience bring a depth and richness to the thesis with an understanding of the political background of pharmacy during this period, as well as facilitating access to official pharmacy records. Many thanks are therefore due to John Fraser, Professional Practice Fellow of the School of Pharmacy (retired); Bill Kelly, Chair of the Pharmacy Board of Australia; and in particular, Euan Galloway, past Chief Pharmacist of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, who assisted as my unofficial Wellington-based ‘research assistant’. Truly, Euan, I could not have done this without you! Librarians and archivists are information retrieval experts and their ability to find obscure sources or references is truly wondrous. My eternal thanks to Thelma Fisher (University of Otago Health Sciences Library), Jacinda Boivin (University of Otago Interloan Service), the archivists from Archives New Zealand (Wellington), New South Wales State Library (Sydney), Victoria State Library (Melbourne), Jennifer Milward and her team at the Research Centre of the Australian War Memorial (Canberra), and staff at the offices of the National Archives of Australia (Melbourne and Canberra), to name just a few. A special note of thanks to Squadron Leader Nick Williamson (RAAF), for the invitation to present at the Australian Defence Force MILSIG (Military Special Interest Group) Annual Meeting in July 2018. Having the opportunity to give current serving military pharmacists insight into their professional heritage and history has been the highest point of this PhD journey. While it might be my research, it is ultimately their story. iv Acknowledgements To my fellow PhD room-mates, I thank you for your support and encouragement. Writing a PhD can be a lonely experience and understanding from those who are going through the same process is invaluable. Particular thanks go to Rakhee Raghunanadan and Eeva- Katri Kumpula, for many discussions and cups of coffee (and mojitos), lots of laughter, and for maintaining my sanity! I would also like to take the opportunity to thank extended family and friends for their unstinting encouragement, support and love during this journey, especially my adopted brother Petty Officer Cook of the Royal Australian Navy, Stuart Jensen. Your support and encouragement has kept me going through thick and thin. My aunt Denise Doughty has been a particular influence on the writing of this thesis. She was so excited to read my ‘book’, although she felt that she wouldn’t understand it. History should be inclusive, not exclusionary, so I have written this thesis in a way that anyone should be able to read and understand. Sadly, she passed away in February 2019. Finally, to all the fine men and women serving in the New Zealand and Australian armed forces, both past and present, I thank you. Truly, I stand on the shoulders of giants. v Dedication Dedication Fig. 1: William Trenton Doughty, L. Doughty. Personal Collection This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father’s cousin William Trenton Doughty, 2nd Lieutenant, Wellington Infantry Regiment, 1st Battalion (F Company), New Zealand Expeditionary Force. He was killed in action 31 July 1917 during the siege of La Basse- Ville on the first day of the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele), aged 27. Lt Doughty rests in Mud Corner Cemetery, Comines-Warneton, Belgium. We will remember them vi Table of Contents Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iii Dedication .................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. viii List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................... xi Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Military Pharmacy – New Zealand ..............................................