A Grammar of Nese Lana Grelyn Takau MA A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Linguistics School of Humanities and Social Science Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle, Australia March 2016 Statement of Originality The thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university of other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository**, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. **Unless an Embargo has been approved for a determined period. i Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures.............................................................................. x List of Maps ................................................................................................. xii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... xiii Abstract ........................................................................................................ xv Abbreviations .............................................................................................. xvi 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Vanuatu Language Setting ....................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Linguistic situation................................................................................ 4 1.1.2 Subgrouping .......................................................................................... 8 1.1.3 Previous linguistic work on Vanuatu languages ................................. 12 1.2 Malekula ................................................................................................ 14 1.2.1 Sociolinguistic overview ..................................................................... 15 1.2.1.1 Matanvat today................................................................................. 17 1.2.1.2 Nese speakers ................................................................................... 19 1.2.1.3 Influence of Bislama ........................................................................ 21 1.2.1.4 Speakers’ attitudes towards their own language .............................. 21 1.2.1.5 Nese language revival efforts........................................................... 23 1.2.2 Linguistic situation.............................................................................. 26 1.2.3 Vanuatu internal subgrouping ............................................................. 27 1.2.3.1 Internal classification of Malekula languages .................................. 28 1.3 The present study ................................................................................... 31 1.3.1 Methodology ....................................................................................... 31 1.3.2 Organisation of the thesis.................................................................... 34 ii 1.3.3 Presentation of examples .................................................................... 34 2 Phonology ................................................................................................. 36 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 36 2.2 Phonemic inventory ............................................................................... 36 2.2.1 Consonants .......................................................................................... 37 2.2.2 Vowels ................................................................................................ 57 2.3 Phonotactics ........................................................................................... 60 2.3.1 Consonant and vowel combinations ................................................... 60 2.3.2 Syllable structure ................................................................................ 61 2.3.2.1 Consonant distribution ..................................................................... 63 2.3.2.2 Vowel distribution ........................................................................... 68 2.4 Stress ...................................................................................................... 70 2.5 Morphophonemic processes................................................................... 72 2.5.1 Vowel harmony ................................................................................... 72 2.5.1.1 Vowel harmony in subject cross-indexes ........................................ 73 2.5.1.1.1 Realis subject prefixes .................................................................. 73 2.5.1.1.2 Irrealis subject prefixes ................................................................. 74 2.5.1.2 Vowel harmony in negative discontinuous markers ........................ 76 2.5.2 Vowel raising ...................................................................................... 80 2.5.3 Reduplication ...................................................................................... 85 2.5.3.1 CVC reduplication ........................................................................... 86 2.5.3.2 CV reduplication .............................................................................. 88 2.6 Orthography ........................................................................................... 89 3 Word Classes ............................................................................................ 92 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 92 iii 3.2 Nouns ..................................................................................................... 92 3.2.1 Proper nouns ....................................................................................... 94 3.2.2 Common nouns ................................................................................... 97 3.2.3 Locational nouns ............................................................................... 102 3.3 Verbs .................................................................................................... 107 3.4 Pronouns .............................................................................................. 111 3.5 Prepositions .......................................................................................... 114 3.6 Adverbs ................................................................................................ 117 3.7 Quantifiers & Numerals ....................................................................... 119 3.7.1 Ordinal Numbers ............................................................................... 121 3.8 Conjunctions and Subordinators .......................................................... 123 3.8.1 Conjunctions ..................................................................................... 123 3.8.2 Subordinators .................................................................................... 128 3.9 Relational classifiers ............................................................................ 130 3.10 Directionals ........................................................................................ 130 3.11 Demonstratives .................................................................................. 133 3.13 Negative particles............................................................................... 139 3.14 Verbal affixes ..................................................................................... 140 3.15 Greetings and Leave takings .............................................................. 140 3.16 Lexical interjections ........................................................................... 141 3.17 Flexibility of word class members ..................................................... 142 4 The Noun Phrase ..................................................................................... 146 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 146 4.2 Order of Noun Phrase constituents ...................................................... 146 4.3 Function of Noun Phrases .................................................................... 152 iv 4.4 Words functioning as heads of Noun Phrases...................................... 155 4.5 Modification of the head ...................................................................... 163 4.5.1 Nominal modifiers ............................................................................ 163 4.5.2 Bound personal pronouns ................................................................. 164 4.5.3 Intransitive stative verb modifiers .................................................... 167 4.5.4 Number ............................................................................................. 169 4.5.5 Quantifiers......................................................................................... 171 4.5.6 Numerals ........................................................................................... 174 4.5.7 Demonstratives ................................................................................