W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 2017 Creating the Border: Defining, Enforcing and Reasserting Physical and Ethnic Borderzone Spaces during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley andrew Robert Beaupre College of William and Mary, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons Recommended Citation Beaupre, andrew Robert, "Creating the Border: Defining, Enforcing and Reasserting Physical and Ethnic Borderzone Spaces during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley" (2017). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1516639574. http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/S2MT19 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Creating the Border: Defining, Enforcing and Reasserting Physical and Ethnic Borderzone Spaces during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley Andrew Robert Beaupré Morgan, Vermont Bachelor of Arts, University of Vermont, 2007 Master of Arts, Western Michigan University, 2011 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of The College of William & Mary in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology The College of William & Mary August, 2017 © Copyright by Andrew R. Beaupré 2017 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the creation of space and place in a border region through a historically grounded, multi-scalar approach to spatiality. The work draws upon the pre- and post-contact archaeology of the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Corridor, a historically contested waterway where the states of Vermont, and New York meet the Canadian Province of Québec. This is a region that has played host to countless complex cultural interactions between Native American/First Nation groups and Europeans of various cultural and national identities A tripartite model for multi-scalar study of space and place creation is presented and applied to the political and social history Native and European conflict and comprise. The model stipulates that the construction of space consists of three facets, cognitive, material and social spaces. The interaction between these three aspects of spatial creation allows for places to be constructed and identified as holding cultural significance. The study is multi-scalar in respect to both scope of analysis and time. In respect to scope, archaeological analyses are undertaken at the region, site and artifact levels. The model is multiscalar in respect to time, examining the topics of study diachronically, tracing the production of space through time. Each temporally specific examination begins with a discussion of pertinent social mores and constructs as they effect the cognitive space created. The archaeological record is then analyzed to ascertain how cognitive spaces are manifest on the landscape. This built environment augmentation to the landscape is referred to as material space. Finally, the social space, consisting of the relationships between active agents and their material space is examined. The model postulates that it is the social space interactions between cognitive and material spaces that allows for the construction of place. The work often engages in critiques of an Anglo-centric bias in American history to offer a more balanced approach to the historical investigation of a complex borderzone. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii List of Tables iii List of Figures iv Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. Theory and Method 22 Chapter 3. Area of Study 48 Chapter 4. Sixteenth Century Spatial Relations in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley 77 Chapter 5. Seventeenth Century Spatial Relations in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley 135 Chapter 6. Eighteenth Century Spatial Relations in the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley 194 Chapter 7. Concluding Thoughts 301 Appendix A 323 Appendix B 339 Bibliography 343 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the members of my doctoral committee: Kathleen Bragdon, Marley R. Brown III, Martin Gallivan, and Réginald Auger. A special thanks to you all for your feverish work in the final weeks leading up to my dissertation defense. To my advisor, Dr. Bragdon for your tireless support of all my anthropological endeavors. To my mentor, Dr. MRB III, I am forever grateful for your guidance, friendship and numerous fireside chats. To Dr. Gallivan, for introducing me to the works of Henri Lefebvre that are the basis for this dissertation. To Reginald Auger, for hiring me at Saint-Jean, supervising my work and fostering my interest in cross-border archaeology. Thank you to the teachers and advisors who have guided me along the journey that led me to William and Mary. Mike Fournier, James Chapman, James B. Petersen, Michael Nassaney and my ‘academic dad’, Cameron B. Wesson. Thank you also to Eric Ruel and his team at the Musée de Fort Saint-Jean. The logistical services provided by the Officers, NCOs and Cadets of Royal Military College Saint- Jean was invaluable. I also wanted to thank Jenna Carlson, Agnès Gelés, Amanda Johnson, Stéphane Noël, Catherine Losier, Geneviève Trevould and other graduate students at the College of William and Mary and Université Laval for their collegiality. My work at Saint-Jean would not have been possible with the labor of the Université Laval Field School students 2010-2016. I also wish to thank the Canadian Department of Defense History and Heritage Division, American Council for Quebec Studies, Association internationale des études québécoises, the American Canoe Association, and the College of William and Mary Anthropology Department for funding field and archival research. Finally, I owe a great deal of thanks to my family. To my father whom first introduced me to my French-Canadian heritage. To my mother and mother-in-law whose baby-sitting services have enabled the final drafts to come together. To my siblings for their friendly ribbing of a career student. To my son Theodore, my great motivator and the future of the Beaupré family. Lastly, thank you to my Paddling Through the Past bowman and greatest supporter, my dear wife, Deirdre; without you, none of this would have been possible. ii LIST OF TABLES 1. Iroquois Place Names in the Champlain Valley 86 2. Information on Allan Point 88 3. Toponyms Compiled by Day 91 4. Peaks visible from the Summit of Mont Royal 96 5. Gross Tally of Abenaki Terms Garnered from Laurent 2010 [1884] 98 6. Chart Correlating to Figure of St. Lawrence Iroquoian Sites 130 7. Historical References to the Settlement Landscape of the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley During the Interbellum Years 196 8. French Vessels Constructed at Saint-Jean During the Seven Years War 268 9. Rogers Rangers Raids on Fort Saint-Frédéric 290 iii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Graphic Representation of Diachronic Regional Spatiality. 47 2. Topographical Map Showing a Rudimentary Relief of the Project Area 49 3. Map Showing Pertinent Historical and Archaeological Sites 51 4. Champlain's Woodcut of the Battle of July 30th, 1609 59 5. Map of the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley 69 6. Map Dating from 1759, showing His Majesty's Fort at Crown Point and outerworks. 75 7. Map of the Pre-contact Borderzone 79 8. Map showing the Locations of Iroquois Toponyms 87 9. Map showing the Locations of Abenaki Toponyms 90 10. Topographical Map Showing the Diffusion of the Narrower Lake Champlain Valley northward to the Richelieu River Valley and the St. Lawrence Lowlands. 93 11. View Shed Analysis of the Peaks Visible from Mont Royal 94 12. View Shed Analysis of the Lake Champlain Richelieu Valley as Visible from Mont Royal 95 13. Champlain’s Rendering of a Huron in Armor circa 1608 – 1615. 97 14. Map of the Lake Champlain Richelieu River Valley dated 1740 101 15. Map of the Northeast region taken from Wiseman 2001:16 106 16. Composite Image of Algonquin and Iroquian Ceramics 111 17. Late Woodland and Contact Period Projectile Points 113 iv 18. Map Showing Settlements in the St. Lawrence Valley ca. 1535 118 19. Map Showing the Location of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian Political Provinces and Clusters 122 20. Composite Image of St. Lawrence Iroquoian Ceramics Recovered from Vermont 123 21. Map of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian Northern Lake Champlain/Richelieu River Cluster. 124 22. Radio Carbon Dates from the Bohannon Site 126 23. Map of the Locations of St. Lawrence Iroquoian Components in the Northern Lake Champlain/Richelieu River Cluster 130 24. New York Department of Education Interpretive Sign Denoting the location of Champlain's 1609 Battle 140 25. Map Showing the Locations of Mohawk Sites 144 26. Map Showing the Territories Claimed by each of the Native Nations in the Project Area 144 27. A circa 1665 Map Showing the Carignan-Salières Regiment Forts. 146 28. Carte des Forts du Richelieu dressee en 1666 pour la Compagne du Regiment de Carignan-Salière 146 29. Archaeological Sketch Map of Curtain Walls at Fort St. Louis. 147 30. Fort Chambly National Historic Site of Canada Interpreative Map of Archaeological Remains 147 31. A 1938 Aerial Photo of Ilse Sainte-Therese. 149 32. Images of the Post Molds Relating to the Curtain wall of Fort Sainte-Therese, 1665 151 v 33. Reproduction of the Curtain Wall and Banquette Based on Archaeological Evidence, Fort Sainte-Thérèse. 151 34. Plan View of the Post Molds - Fort Sainte-Thérèse. 152 35. Bernier’s Projection of the Outline of Fort Sainte-Thérèse. 153 36. Bernier’s Reconstruction Bastions and Measurements of Sainte-Thérèse 154 37. Map of the Projected Location of Fort l’Assomption on the Grounds of Royal Military College-Saint-Jean.