THE BELLARMINE SERIES XII A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY VOLUME II MEDIAEVAL PHILOSOPHY AUGUSTINE TO SCOTUS BY . FREDERICK COPLESTON, S.J. Professor of the History ofPhilosophy at Heythrop College ., LONDON BURNS OATES & WASHBOURNE LTD. Publishers to the Holy See 1_950 BY THE SAME AUTHOR FRlEDRJCH NIETZSCHE, PHILOSOPHER OF CULTURE, 1942, SECOND IMPRESSION, 1945-THE B'ELLARMINE SERIES, NO. 7 ARTIIUR SCHOPENHAUER, PHILOSOPHER OF PESSIMISM, 1946, SECOND IMPRESSION, 1947-THE BELLARMJNE SERlES, NO. 11 A lUSTORY OF PHILOSOPHY, VOL. I: GREECE AND RO~, 1946, REVISED EDITION, 1947-THE BELLARMINB SERIES, NO. 9 ST. THOMAS AND NIETZSCHE, 1944-AQUINAS PAPER, NO. 2 l EXISTENTIALISM AND MODERN MAN, 1948-AQUINAS PAPER, NO. 9 ·.1 -:i j. THE BELLARMINE SERIES ., A list of volumes with Press appreciations will be found at ! the end of this book ,. ~ I·. De Licentia Superiorum Ordinis: MARTINUS D'ARCY, S.J. Praep. Prov. Angliae Nihil Obstat: T. CORBISHLEY, S.J. Censor Deputatus Imprimatur: +JOSEPH Archiepiscopus Birmingamiensis Die 24 Aprilis 1948 PRJNTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY IARROLD AND SONS LTD., NORWICH, FOR BURNS OATES AND WASHBOURNE LTD., 28 ASHLEY PLACE, LONDON, S.W.l First published 1950 ;· CONTENTS Chapter P age I. I NTRODUCTION I P ART I PRE-MEDI AEVAL INFLUENCES II. THE P ATRISTIC PERIOD 13 Christianity and Greek philosophy-Greek Apologists (Ar istides, St. Justin Martyr, Tatian, . Athcnagoras, Theophilus)- Gnosticism and writers against Gnosticism (St. Irenaeus, Hippolytus)-Latin Apologists (Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Arnobius, Lactantius)-Catcchetical School of Alexandria (Clement, Origen)-Greek Fathers (St. Basil, Eusebius, St. Gregory of- Nyssa)- Latin Fathers (St. Ambrose)-St. John Damascene-Summary. III. ST. AUGUSTINE-I 4 0 Life and writings-St. Augustine and Philosophy. IV. S T. AUGUSTINE-II: K NOWLEDGE Knowledge with a view to beatitude-Against scepticism -Experiential knowledge-Nature of sensation- Divine ideas-Illumination and Abstraction. V . ST. AUGUSTINE-III: Goo . 68 Proof of God from eternal truths-Proofs from creatures and from universal consent-The various proofs as stages in ·one process- Attributes of God- Exemplarism. VI. S T. AUGUSTINE-I V: T HE W ORLD 74 Free creation out of noth.ing-Matter-Rationes seminales -Numbers-Soul and body- Immortality-Origin of soul. VII. S T. A UGUSTINE-V: MORAL THEORY 81 Happiness and God-Freedom and Obligation-Need of grace-Evil- the two Cities. VIII. ST. AUGUSTINE-VI: THE STATE 87 The State and the City of Babylon not identical- The pagan State does not embody true justice-Church superior to State. IX. T HE P SEUDO-DIONYSIUS 91 Writings and author-Affirmative way-Negative way- N eo-Platonic interpretation of Trinity-Ambiguous teach- ing on creation- Problem of evil-Orthodoxy or unor­ thodoxy? X. BOETHIUS, CASSIODORUS, I SIDORE IOI Boethius's transmission of Aristotelian ideas-Natural theology-Influence on Middle Agcs-Cassiodorus on the seven liberal arts and the spirituality of the soul­ I sidore's Etymologies and Sentences. v vi CONTENTS PART II THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE Chapter Page 1 XI. THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE . l ro6 .j Cbarlcmagne-Alcuin and the Palatine School-Other ·I schools, curriculum, libraries-Rbabanus Maurus. I XII. JOHN SCOTUS ERIUGENA-1 II2 J Life and works. XIII. J OHN ScoTus ERIUGENA-II n6 'Nature-God and creation-Knowledge of God by affir­ mative and negative ways; inapplicability of categories to God-How, then, can God ·be said to have made tbe world?-Divine Ideas in the Word-Creatures as partici­ pations and theophanies; creatures are in God-Man's nature-Return of all things to God-Eternal punish- ment in light of cosmic return-Interpretation of John Scotus's system. PART III THE TENTH, ELEVENTH AND T\VELFTH CENTURIES X I V . THE PROBLEM OF UNIVERSALS Situation following death of Charlemagne-Origin of dis­ cussion in texts of Porphyry and Boethius-Im~ortance of; the problem-Exaggerated realism-Roscelin s 'nomi­ nalism'-St. Peter Damian's attitude to dialectic­ William of Champeaux-Abelard-Gilbert de la Porree and John of Salisbury-Hugh of St. Victor-St. Thomas Aquinas. xv. ST. ANSELM OF CANTERBURY St. Anselm as philosopher-Proofs of .God's existence in the Monologium.;._The proof of God's existence in the Proslogium-Idea of truth and.other Augustinian elements in St. Anselm's thought. ·~ fl XVI. THE SCHOOL OF CHARTRES 166 Universalism of Paris, and systematisation of sciences in twelfth century-Regionalism, humanism- Platonism of Chartres-Hylomorphism at Chartres- Prima facie pan- . theism- John of Salisbury's political theory. XVII. THE SCHOOL ·OF ST. VICTOR 175 I Hugh of St. Victor; proofs of God's existence, faith, mysticism-Richard of St. Victor; proofs of God's exis­ tence-Godfrey .of St. Victor and Walter of St. Victor. XVIII. DUALISTS AND P ANTHEISTS 183 - . Albigensians and Cathari-'-Amalric of Bene-Dav~d of Dinant, I ·I1 CONTENTS .vii PART IV ISLAMIC AND JEWISH PHILOSOPHY: TRANSLATIONS .Chapter Page XIX. ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY . 186 Reasons for discussing Islamic philosophy-Origins of · Islamic philosophy-Alfarabi-Avicenna-A verroes­ Dante and the Arabian philosophers. XX. JEWISH PHILOSOPHY . 20I The Cabala-Avicebron-Maimonides. XXI. THE TRANSLATiONS 205 The translated works-Translations from Greek and from Arabic-Effects of translations a.rid opposition to Aris­ totelianism. PART v THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY XXII. INTRODUCTION 212 The University of Paris-Universities closed and privi­ leged corporations-Curriculum~Religious Orders at Paris-Currents of thought in the th.irteenth century. XXIII. WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE 218 Reasons for treating of William of Auvergne-God and creatures; essence and existence-Creation by God directly and in time-Proofs of God's existence-Hylo­ morphism-The soul-Knowledge-William of Auvergne a transition-thinker. XXIV. ROBERT GROSSETESTE . AND ALEXANDER OF HALES 228 . (a) Robert Gfosseteste's life and writings-Doctrine of light-God and creatures-Doctrine of truth and of illu­ mination. (b) Alexander of Hales's attitude to philosophy-Proofs of God's existence-The divine attributes-Composition in creatures-Soul, intellect, will-Spirit of Alexander's philosophy. xxv. ST. BONAVENTURE- I 240 Life and works-Spirit-Theology and philosophy­ Attitude to Aristotelianism. XXVI. ST. BONAVENTURE-II: Gon's ExrSTENCE Spirit of Bonaventure's proofs of God's existence­ Proofs from sensible world-A p'YiMi knowledge of God -The Anselmian argument- Argument from truth. XXVII. ST. BONAVENTURE-III: R ELATION OF CREATURES TO Goo · 258 Exemplarism-The divine kno\vledge.-Impossibility of creation from eternity-Errors which follow from denial of exemplarism and . creation- Likeness of creatures to God, analogy-Is this world the best possible world? viii CONTENTS Chapter Page XXVIII. ST. BONAVENTURE-I V: THE MATERIAL CR'EATION 27r. Hylomorphic composition in all creatures- Individuation -Light- Plurality of forms-Rationes seminales. XXIX. ST. BONAVENTURE-V: THE HUMAN SOUL Unity of human soul-Relation of soul to body-Immor­ tality of the human soul-Falsity of Averroistic mono­ psychism-Knowledge of sensible objects and of first logical principles-KnowlC<dge of spiritual realities-Illu­ mination-The soul's ascent to God-Bonaventure as philosopher of the Christian life. XXX. ST. ALBERT THE GREAT 293 Life and intellectual activity-Philosophy and theology -God-Creation-The soul-Reputation and importance of St. Albert. XXXI. ST. T HOMAS AQUINAS- I 302 Life-Works-Mode of exposing St. Thomas's philosophy -The spirit of St. Thomas's philosophy. XXXII. ST. THOMAS A QUINAS-II: PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY 312 Distinction between philosophy and theology-Moral necessity of revelation- Incompatibility of faith and science in the same mind concerning the same object­ Natural end and supernatural end-St . Thomas and St. Bonaventure-St. Thomas as 'innovator'. · XXXIII. ST. T HOMAS AQUINAS- III: PRINCIPLES OF CREATED BEING 324 Reasons for starting with corporeal being-Hylomorphism -Rejection of rationes seminale;-Rejection of plurality of substantial forms-Restriction of hylomorphic compo- sition to corporeal substances-Potentiality and act­ Essence and existence. XXXI V. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS-I V : PROOFS OF Goo's EXISTENCE 336 Need of proof-St . Anselm's argument-Possibility of fi proof- The first three proofs-The fourth proof- The proof from finality-The 'third way' fundamental. XXXV. ST. THOMAS AQU~NAs-V: Goo's NATURE 347 The negative way-The affirmative way-Analogy- Types of analogy-A difficulty-The divine ideas-No real distinction between the divine attributes-God as existence itself. XXXVI. ST. THOMAS A QUINAS- V I : CREATION Creation out of nothing-God alone can create-God created freely- The motive of creation-Impossibility of creation from eternity has not been demonstrated-Could God create an actually infinite multitude?- Divine omni­ potence- The problem of evil. 1. CONTENTS lX Chapter P age XXXVII. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS-VII: PSYCHOLOGY 375 One substantial form in man-The powers of the soul­ Tbe interior senses-Free will-The noblest faculty­ Immoct;ality-The active and passive intellects are not numeriCally the same in all men. XXXVIII. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS-VIII: K NOWLEDGE 'Theory of knowledge' in St. Thomas-The process of knowledge; knowledge of the universal and of the parti­ cular-The soul's knowledge of itself-The possibility of metaphysics. xxxrx. ST. THoMAs AQmNAs-r x: MoRAL T HEORY . 398 Eudaemonism-The vision of God-Good and bad- The virtues-The natural law-The eternal law and the foundation of morality in God-Natural virtues recognised by St. Thomas which were not recognised by Aristotle; the virtue of religion. XL. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS-X: POLITICAL THEORY 4r2 St. Thomas and Aristotle-The natural origin of human society and government-Human society and political authority willed by God-Church and State-Individ~al and State - Law - Sovereignty- Constituti~ns - St. Thomas's political theory an integral part of his total syst em. Note on St. Thomas's aesthetic theory. X LI. ST. THOMAS AND .ARISTOT;LE: CONTROVERSIES 423 St.