Durham E-Theses Practicing the International: India-Pakistan Relations in the Punjab Borderland KORMOLL, RAPHAELA,TABEA How to cite: KORMOLL, RAPHAELA,TABEA (2019) Practicing the International: India-Pakistan Relations in the Punjab Borderland, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13511/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 PRACTICING THE INTERNATIONAL: INDIA-PAKISTAN RELATIONS IN THE PUNJAB BORDERLAND RAPHAELA TABEA KORMOLL Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the School of Government and International Affairs at Durham University in 2019. DECLARATION This thesis is the result of my own work. Material from the published or unpublished work of others which is used in the thesis is credited to the author in question in the text. Name: Raphaela Kormoll Signature: Date: 30 September 2019 1 ABSTRACT Relations between India and Pakistan have received much attention since their formal constitution as independent states over 72 years ago. Existing literature has focused predominantly on security relations rather than economic relations or bilateral cooperation. Analysed were the discourses of key political and military leaders in New Delhi and Islamabad and Rawalpindi rather than everyday practices. This thesis proposes an alternative approach to analysing relations between India and Pakistan that is grounded in practices and focuses on the Punjab borderland. Building on Pierre Bourdieu’s practice theory, I argued that relations between India and Pakistan are best understood as produced and reproduced through everyday security and economic practices, that are historically constituted and shaped through field, capital and habitus. I argue that borderlands are well suited to study international practices because they may appear there in sharper relief as borders are central to states and to interstate relations. While Bourdieu did not pay much attention to borders and even less to international boundaries, one of the main contributions to existing literature on practice theory is the development of a practice-based analytical framework for studying international relations in borderlands. Drawing on nine months of ethnographically informed fieldwork in Amritsar and Lahore, New Delhi and Islamabad, I show how Bourdieu’s conceptual framework allows to gain a deeper understanding of relations between India and Pakistan through four case studies: (1) bilateral wars and crises, (2) the Khalistan movement, (3) everyday life in the Punjab borderland, and (4) bilateral trade through the Attari- Wagah border crossing point. I relate everyday practices in the Punjab borderland to joint statements issued and agreements reached by India and Pakistan in the framework of the government-led Composite Dialogue Process (2004-2012), to show the close relationship between everyday practices in the Punjab borderland and foreign policymaking in New Delhi and Islamabad. This dissertation contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between everyday practices and foreign policymaking and between border states and central governments, to International Relations and to Pierre Bourdieu’s practice theory. 2 CONTENTS ABSTRACT 2 CONTENTS 3 FIGURES 5 MAPS 5 IMAGES 5 ABBREVIATIONS 6 GLOSSARY 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 11 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 13 1.1 THESIS STRUCTURE 17 1.2 METHODS 21 CHAPTER 2: A BOURDIEUSIAN CONTRIBUTION TO RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND PAKISTAN 28 2.1 SECURITY, COOPERATION AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS 28 2.2 BORDERS IN (SOUTH) ASIA 35 2.3 BOURDIEUSIAN CONTRIBUTIONS 37 2.4 CONCLUSION 43 CHAPTER 3: ANALYSING RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES THROUGH EVERYDAY PRACTICES IN BORDERLANDS 45 3.1 BOURDIEU’S THEORY OF PRACTICE 45 3.2 A BOURDIEUSIAN MODEL FOR THE ANALYSIS OF CRISES 51 3.3 FROM THE STATE TO RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES 57 3.4 TAKING BOURDIEU TO THE BORDERLAND 64 3.5 CONCLUSION 67 CHAPTER 4: THE CENTRALITY OF PUNJAB TO RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND PAKISTAN 69 4.1 PUNJAB: FROM HEARTLAND TO BORDERLAND, 1799-1947 70 4.2 THE CENTRALITY OF THE PUNJAB BORDERLAND, 1947-PRESENT 79 4.3 STATE- AND BORDER-MAKING IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN 94 4.4 CONFLICTS, COOPERATION AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 106 4.5 CONCLUSION 116 3 CHAPTER 5: THE PUNJAB BORDERLAND AS CRISIS SPACE 118 5.1 THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CRISIS SPACE 120 5.2 BORDERLANDERS’ PRACTICES IN A CHANGING SECURITY ENVIRONMENT 124 5.3 IM-MOBILITIES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CRISIS HABITUS 130 5.4 CONCLUSION 137 CHAPTER 6: CONTESTED BORDERS: THE KHALISTAN MOVEMENT 140 6.1 A SIKH STATE: THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF THE KHALISTAN MOVEMENT 144 6.2 THE PUNJAB IN VIOLENCE: THE SECURITISATION OF THE BORDERLAND 147 6.3 PAKISTAN AS NATIONAL ENEMY: MOBILITY AS THREAT 155 6.4 FROM ENEMY TO COLLABORATOR: CONTROLLING MOBILITY 160 6.5 CONCLUSION 167 CHAPTER 7: THE SECURITISATION OF EVERYDAY LIFE 170 7.1 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BORDER AND ITS IMPACT ON MOBILITY 171 7.2 BORDER GUARDING PRACTICES: EVERYDAY INSECURITIES 177 7.3 BADP: THE SECURITISATION OF DEVELOPMENT 186 7.4 CONCLUSION 190 CHAPTER 8: TRADE PRACTICES AT THE ATTARI-WAGAH BORDER CROSSING POINT 193 8.1 CONSTITUTING NATIONAL ECONOMIC FIELDS AND TRADE RELATIONS 196 8.2 POLICYMAKING THROUGH COMMERCIAL ASSOCIATIONS 204 8.3 GOVERNING EVERYDAY TRADE PRACTICES THROUGH RULES AND REGULATIONS 215 8.4 MATERIALISING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN INFRASTRUCTURES 223 8.5 NEGOTIATING STATE AUTHORITY IN THE EVERYDAY 230 8.6 CONCLUSION 238 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION 241 APPENDICES 253 APPENDIX 1: CHRONOLOGY 253 APPENDIX 2: VILLAGE DATA OF INDIA CENSUS 2011 256 APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY 261 INTERVIEW PARTNERS 261 GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 264 NEWS REPORTS 274 SECONDARY LITERATURE 280 4 FIGURES Figure 1: India-Pakistan Trade in US $ Million, 1948-2018 ................................... 204 MAPS Map 1: “India at End of British Period” (1947) ......................................................... 71 Map 2: The two Punjabs today (Wikipedia 2006) ..................................................... 79 Map 3: The Road Border Crossing Point Showing LFU Wagah (Left) and ICP Attari (Right) (Google Maps 2018) .................................................................................... 225 IMAGES Image 1: The Border Fence near Daoke, Punjab, India (Kormoll 2017) ................. 172 Image 2: A Border Out-Post (BOP) of the Indian Border Security Force in Front of the Fence (Kormoll 2017) .............................................................................................. 174 Image 3: A look-out and defence construction along the international boundary in the Punjab (Kormoll 2017) ............................................................................................. 174 Image 4: Area of land trapped between the de jure border (yellow line) and the river Ravi near the Indian villages Kakkar and Ranian (Google Earth 2018) .................. 175 Image 5: A Gate in the Fence, Floodlighting and an Observation Platform (Kormoll 2017) ......................................................................................................................... 179 Image 6: The Tree to the left demarcates the end of the Indian Territory: A Tractor can be seen on the Fields Beyond the Fence (Kormoll 2017) ........................................ 182 Image 7: Wheat Market in Rajatal (Kormoll 2017) ................................................. 184 Image 8: Trucks crossing trade gate at Attari-Wagah (File Foto 2014) ................... 193 Image 9: Attari-Wagah Border Crossing Point ........................................................ 230 5 ABBREVIATIONS APTMA All Pakistan Textile Mills Association ADB Asian Development Bank BA Business Association BADP Border Area Development Programme (India) BCCI Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry BOP Border Out Post BSF Border Security Force (India) B2B Business-to-Business CAREC Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation CBD Comprehensive Bilateral Dialogue CBMs Confidence Building Measures CDP Composite Dialogue Process CHA Clearing House Agent CII Confederation of Indian Industry CLBC Customs Liaison Border Committee CM Chief Minister (India/Pakistan) CoC Chamber of Commerce and Industry COIN Counter-insurgency operations CoM Commerce Minister (India/Pakistan) CS Commerce Secretary (India/Pakistan) CWC Central Warehousing Corporation DG Director General DGFT Directorate General of Foreign Trade DGMO Director General Military Operations DGP Director General Police (India) DM Defence Minister (India/Pakistan) DoP Department of Planning, Government of Punjab (India) DS Defence Secretary (India/Pakistan) EDI Electronic Data Interchange System FA Foreign affairs FAP Farmers Association of Pakistan 6 FBR Federal Board of Revenue FBTSS Full Body Truck Scanning System FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry FM Foreign Minister FPCCI Federation of