Politics and Sport don’t mix – or do they? National Identity and New Zealand’s Participation in the Olympic Games Micheal D. Warren A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2018 1 Abstract Sports matter. Today sport is one of the most enduring social events that humans from across the world participate in, no matter their race, religion or gender. Moreover, the biggest of all those sporting events is the Olympic Games, which is held every four years. The modern version of the Games was founded by Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin and first took place in Athens in 1896. New Zealand first competed alongside Australia as Australasia in London 1908 and Stockholm 1912. Following the games of 1916 which were cancelled due to World War I, New Zealand has competed as a sovereign nation since Antwerp 1920. Since 1908, over 1200 New Zealanders have competed at the Olympic Games, winning more than 100 medals. That performance in itself makes New Zealand one of the most successful nations in Olympic history on a per capita basis. That statistic alone underscores the relationship between the Olympics and national identity, as an embodiment of New Zealanders believing they ‘punch above their weight’ on the world stage. Benedict Anderson wrote about the imagined community, where the nation is imagined because it is impossible for every citizen to know each other.1 This research has found that sporting teams like the All Blacks and the New Zealand Olympic Team are perfect avenues to help create this imagined community. New Zealand’s national identity is not fixed, it has evolved, but the one mainstay of that identity is the sense of being an underdog on the world stage. The research has found that over the past three decades New Zealand governments have increasingly woken up to the importance of high-performance sport and following the disappointment of the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, funding was increased, which has led to better results and more medals. Today New Zealand athletes are funded on a per-capita basis just as well as many other nations we would compare ourselves with. New Zealand politicians have been quick to associate themselves alongside sportsmen and women and often speak about the close link that exists between sport and identity in New Zealand. However, unlike Australia, New Zealand does not have a national sports museum, and also unlike Australia, and the United Kingdom, New Zealand legislation does not allow for free-to-air television coverage of games of national significance. New Zealand does not adequately showcase its sporting history, and this has the potential to negatively affect the importance New Zealanders place on sport and the Olympic Movement as an important part of its national identity. 1 Benedict Anderson, ‘Imagined Communities,’ (London: Verso, 2006), pp.6-7. 2 Ultimately this research has found that the New Zealand Olympic Team epitomises what it means to be a New Zealander and has found that across multiple levels of analysis, the Olympic Movement has significantly contributed to the development of New Zealand’s national identity. More broadly, the Olympic Games have become a key avenue in which that national identity can be projected to the world. 3 Acknowledgements The Olympic Games have been an interest for me since a young age. My earliest memory of the Olympic Games was watching the Atlanta Olympics as a nine-year-old in 1996, Danyon Loader winning two gold medals in swimming at the Atlanta Olympic Games. From that moment, my interest in the Olympic Games was sparked. As a nine- year-old, I was astounded by the fact that New Zealand with a country of 3.5 million people at the time could compete on the world stage and win, against the might of other much larger nations. Firstly, I would like to thank my family for all their support and assistance throughout this project. This has been a big undertaking, and especially I want to thank mum and dad for their support both emotional and financial. I could not have done it without you both. For 31 years you have believed in me and backed me every time to pursue my dreams and interests. Because of you, I was able to travel to Lausanne and Greece to spend time at the IOC research centre and Ancient Olympia, the birthplace of the Olympic Games, to gain valuable insights into the Olympic movement. Also my Nana for her generous support throughout the process has been instrumental. I would also like to thank Jeff for your supporting during the concluding stages of my thesis. Your constant encouragement and support is much appreciated and will never be forgotten! I also want to thank my primary supervisor Dr Jon Johansson for all his support and assistance throughout this project. Your advice has been instrumental, and I am glad to not only call you a mentor, but also one of my closest friends. I also want to thank my secondary supervisor Professor Stephen Levine for all your support and assistance as well. Thanks also to Emeritus Professor Dame Margaret Clark and Jonette Crysell for all their assistance and support through this process. Thanks must also go to the New Zealand Olympic Committee and New Zealand Olympians for their generous time in making themselves available to be interviewed. You are all role models in New Zealand society. Kereyn Smith, the Secretary-General of the New Zealand Olympic Committee, Cathleen Bias and the rest of the team at the New Zealand Olympic Committee, have provided an enormous amount of support and assistance towards my research and allowed me to spend time at their offices in Auckland. I also want to thank the Edgar Olympic Foundation for their generous support and contribution to this research. 4 Also, thanks must be given to members of the media who have collectively commentated and reported from many Olympic Games. Your interest and support in my research has been greatly appreciated. Finally, I want to dedicate this thesis to my late Nana, Nina Kuriger, who passed away while I was working on this project. Nana, you always wanted a doctor in the family; well all I can say is that your wish has come true. Your love and support meant the world to me, and you will always be close to my heart. Rest in peace with grandad you lovely lady! 5 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 4 List of Figures and Tables ........................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................................. 9 Methodological Approach ............................................................................................................ 24 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................... 25 Research Questions: ..................................................................................................................... 25 Part One: The Politics of Identity – An Overview .................................................................................. 31 Chapter Two: National Identity – a theoretical analysis of nation-building through sport .............. 32 National Identity: Imagined or real? ............................................................................................. 33 International Social Survey Programme: National Identity and National Pride ........................... 38 Fostering a National Identity through Sport ................................................................................. 40 The virtuous cycle of sport ............................................................................................................ 49 Sport and identity in New Zealand – rugby, racing and beer ....................................................... 51 Chapter Three: Nationalism – A theoretical overview ..................................................................... 63 Nationalism as a political ideology................................................................................................ 63 Banal Nationalism – Nationalism in the 21st century .................................................................... 71 Nationalism and sport: the link explained .................................................................................... 73 Part Two: New Zealand in the world through the Olympic Games – from small beginnings to the centre of the Olympic Movement......................................................................................................... 84 Chapter Four: New Zealand as an outpost of the Empire 1894-1947 .............................................. 85 The build-up to participation 1894-1908 ...................................................................................... 89 New Zealand as part of Australasia – 1908 and 1912 ................................................................... 91 New Zealand branches out – The Games of the VII Olympiad – Antwerp 1920 .......................... 94 Paris 1924 – Games of the VIII Olympiad .....................................................................................