Capturing War and Bringing It Home: How Photojournalism and Iconic Images Affect Public Opinion During Wartime Item Type text; Electronic Thesis Authors Nielson, Alec Brittney Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 28/09/2021 06:47:16 Item License http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/ Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/146630 Nielson 1 CAPTURING WAR AND BRINGING IT HOME: HOW PHOTOJOURNALISM AND ICONIC IMAGES AFFECT PUBLIC OPINION DURING WARTIME By ALEC BRITTNEY NIELSON ____________________ A Thesis Submitted to The Honors College In Partial Fulfillment of the Bachelors degree With Honors in Journalism THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA May 2010 Approved by: _______________________________ Dr. Terry Wimmer School of Journalism Nielson 2 ABSTRACT A historical analysis indicates that photographs taken during wartime affect public opinion. This seems to be especially true in regard to photographs that have gained iconic status. This study examines the relationship between patterns of war coverage and public opinion during the Iraq War. Through a coding system, the study uncovers reoccurring themes in photographs, measures the emotions depicted in the images and counts the graphic images published. The research pays particular attention to the relationship between iconic images and the public’s support, or lack thereof, for the war. While the results of the study were not able support a definitive relationship between public opinion and photographic coverage, they did suggest a potential relationship. The results found in this study should be used to further study the impact of iconic images on public opinion. Nielson 3 INTRODUCTION “Public opinion wins war,” General Dwight Eisenhower said during World War II (Malkin, 1996, p. 77). He was referencing the media’s ability to influence public opinion and support for the war. Whether purposefully or not, throughout history media has proved capable of affecting public sentiment. It seems media must wield an influence on public opinion, if for no other reason than without it the public would likely lack the information necessary to form an opinion. Quoting Bernard Cohen, Bardes, Shelley & Schmidt (2008) write, “the media may not be successful in telling their audience what to think, but they are “stunningly successful in telling their audience what to think about,”” (p. 195). As such, history, especially during wartime, has demonstrated a continued relationship between media and public opinion. This connection seems particularly prevalent in regard to photographs. Photojournalism is a powerful branch of the media, as photographs are capable of eliciting an immediate emotional response. Pfau et al. (2006) explains that photographs have this effect because they are processed by the right brain, “which tends to be more holistic and emotional, and is processed automatically and quickly” (p. 151) He adds, “These emotions serve as decision heuristics and exert considerable impact” (p. 151). Thus, photographs evoke an emotional response and simultaneously cause the viewer to make quick decisions and form swift opinions. Furthermore, unlike text, photographs can provide huge stores of information in a small amount of space (Moeller, 1999, p. 47). Perhaps most importantly, the public has a tendency to trust the credibility of photographs. This was true as far back as the Civil War when the public accepted the content of photographs without question (Walton, 2003, p. 994). Newton (2001) remarks Nielson 4 that modern trust exists as well. Her research reveals, “despite journalists’ low rank in credibility polls, readers still may intuitively believe images they see in newspapers” (p. 10). In a discussion of wartime photojournalism it is important to also mention iconic images. Hariman and Lucaites (2007) provide a list of definitions for iconic photographs, including but not limited to: “They are easily recognized… They are reproduced widely… They come to represent large swaths of historical experience…They are accessible, undemanding images suited to mass-mediated collective memory” (p. 1). In other words, like any icon, iconic photographs are widely recognized representations of some idea or event. Kroes (2000) notes, “Often such images start leading their own lives, serving as summary recapitulations of recent history” (p. 184). The iconic images in this study are also assumed to have had some control over public opinion during wartime. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this study is two-fold. First, it seeks to examine patterns in photographic coverage of the Iraq War. Second, it examines the effects that war photographs have on public opinion. Specifically, it will explore possible correlations between common characteristics and reoccurring themes in the photographs depicting the Iraq War and the measured public opinion at the time of the photograph’s publication. Nielson 5 The study will use a coding system and content analysis to look for common characteristics in photographs depicting the conflict in Iraq. These photographs will be taken from four online photo galleries that serve the purpose of summarizing the war. As with the rest of the study, there will be a focus on iconic images, which will be identified by the literature. In order to observe correlations between public opinion and the photographic coverage, the study will compare the results from the content analysis to a USA Today/ Gallup poll that, at various points between 2003 and 2009, finds the percentage of people who believe entering the Iraq War was a mistake. Finally, this study will create a timeline of public opinion and iconic images. It will examine changes in the nature of the iconic images as compared to changes in public opinion, to search for potential relationships between the two. Statement of Relevance The Iraq War is an ongoing conflict. Therefore, it is important to understand how the war is being covered. This information will serve not only as a reference for future conflicts, but because the war is ongoing, journalists will have the opportunity to make adjustments to coverage of the war if the data shows biases. That being noted, the importance of this study is based on its ability to show how certain methods of war coverage can impact public opinion. When photojournalists or their editors stray from objectivity, public sentiment, and resulting support for or against Nielson 6 the war, may be impacted. The journalist should at least understand the potential impact of self-censorship and/or subjectivity. Additionally, the purpose of the media is to serve as a government watchdog. As such, journalists should continue to conduct studies that test the objectivity and balance of their coverage. Editors as well as journalists should consistently analyze their self- censorship to make sure it is both appropriate and ethical. They should check their photographs for biases that could unjustly affect public sentiment and support. Furthermore, it is imperative, especially during time of war, to recognize the power and impact of this journalistic outlet. In particular, editors and journalists should be aware of the impact of iconic images that media reinforce. The role and purpose of the media is to divulge information and disseminate truth. This work is imperative during wartime. There are few other methods for the public to receive information about international conflicts than through the media. Thus, journalists should continue to examine the credibility and truthfulness of their coverage, and, through research and analysis, should recognize the impact it has on public opinion. LITERATURE REVIEW A historical analysis of four wars in the United States’ history gives insight into the role of photojournalism during wartime. This examination of both specific photographs as well as general journalistic policies demonstrates the profound impact images had on public opinion during past wars. Nielson 7 As the analysis illustrates, photographs have played an important role in depicting warfare and establishing an overall image or view of war. Photographs, especially the iconic images, have helped define conflicts. This review researches four different conflicts in United States history. The first is the Civil War, which was the first war to be heavily photographed (Getlein, 2002). Following is World War II—a war that was heavily censored (Roeder, 1993) but also greatly supported (Casey, 2001). Next the review examines the Vietnam War, which, opposite to World War II, went almost completely uncensored (Hallin, 1986) and received mostly negative attention from the public (Willis, 2007). Finally the Iraq War is a modern and ongoing conflict that will be studied in more depth later on in this study. Civil War In September of 1862 the bloodiest battle of the American Civil War was fought on Union soil (Walbridge, 2000, p. 9). Matthew Brady’s photograph, On The Antietam Battlefield (1862), depicts the graphic consequence of that battle—a line of uniformed corpses covers the black and white image. (Walton, 2003, p. 994). Matthew Brady’s work did not end with the Battle of Antietam. Rather, Brady and his staff of photographers took approximately 7,000 glass plate negatives over the course of the war (Griffin, 1999, p. 132). Their work was innovatory—this war was the first in history to be closely photographed (Boyer, Clark, Kett, Salisbury & Sitkoff, 2008, p. 452). Nielson 8 According to Griffin (1999), Brady decided to photograph the war and then “received permission from Abraham Lincoln himself to accompany Union troops on their campaigns” (p. 131). The photographs Brady and his staff brought home from the battlefield had no small effect. They allowed the public to view real images of war, and by doing so, they altered the public’s view of war (Boyer et al., 2008, p. 452). For the first time, prints of death were being brought to people’s doorsteps.