Talk Up Front The Influence of Language Matters on International Military Missions with a Particular Focus on the Cooperation between Soldiers and Interpreters Talk Up Front The Influence of Language Matters on International Military Missions with a Particular Focus on the Cooperation between Soldiers and Interpreters Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan Tilburg University op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof. dr. W.B.J.H. van de Donk, in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties aangewezen commissie in de Aula van de Universiteit op woensdag 10 maart 2021 om 16:30 uur door Andrea van Dijk geboren te Dordrecht Typography & Design: Multimedia NLDA Printed by: Repro FBD ISBN: 9789493124103 ©2021 Andrea van Dijk, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. No parts of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission of the author. Promotor: Prof. dr. J.L.M. Soeters Tilburg University Copromotor: Prof. dr. ir. S.J.H Rietjens Nederlandse Defensie Academie Promotiecommissie: Prof. dr. M.G.W. den Boer Nederlandse Defensie Academie Prof. dr. ir. G. Frerks Universiteit Utrecht Prof. dr. N.G. Noorderhaven Tilburg University Dr. C.H Ruffa Uppsala University This dissertation was financially and factually supported by the Netherlands Defence Academy. The views and opinions in this dissertation are and remain solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Ministry of Defence. Every Kinda People Said the fight to make ends meet Keeps a man upon his feet Holding down his job Trying to show he can’t be bought It takes every kinda people To make what life’s about Every kind of people To make the world go ‘round Someone’s looking for a lead In his duty to a King or to a creed Protecting what he feels is right Fights against wrong with his life To those who bond by word and beyond. There is no profit in deceit Honest men know that Revenge does not taste sweet Whether yellow, black or white Each and every man’s the same inside It takes every kinda people To make what life’s about It takes every kind of people To make the world go ‘round You know that love’s the only goal That could bring a peace to any soul Hey, and every man’s the same He wants the sunshine in his name It takes every kinda people To make what life’s about It takes every kind of people To make the world go ‘round Lyrics: Andy Fraser Artist: Robert Palmer Contents 9 Contents Introduction .....................................................................................................................11 Chapter 1: ........................................................................................................................23 Language Matters in the Military Chapter 2: ........................................................................................................................45 Tough Talk: Clear and Cluttered Communication during Peace Operations Chapter 3 ..........................................................................................................................59 Language and Communication during Peace Support Operationsin Timor-Leste Chapter 4 .......................................................................................................................... 71 Smooth Translation? Cooperation between Dutch Servicemen and Local Interpreters in Military Operations in Afghanistan Chapter 5 ..........................................................................................................................93 A Small Sociology of Interpreters: The Role and Position of Interpreters in Conflict Situations Chapter 6 .........................................................................................................................131 Communicating Vessels? The Trade and Traits of Soldiers and Interpreters during Stability Operations in the Province of Uruzgan Conclusions, Reflections and Recommendations .......................................................227 Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 241 Appendices ....................................................................................................................245 Summary .......................................................................................................................297 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ 301 Introduction Introduction 11 Introduction Introduction: Language and the Military Language is fundamental to all social interaction. Even more so in the case of military operations in which efficient communication could mean the difference between life and death. History is rife with examples that demonstrate the importance of language for effective military cooperation. From ancient times to this very day multilingual armies have been part of war. Especially before the rise of modern nation-states polyglot armies were a widespread phenomenon. Empires, city-states and other political entities relied upon soldiers from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds to protect their interests and fight their enemies. The armed forces of France’s Ancien régime, for instance, consisted of, among others, Danish, Dutch, German, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Polish, Swedish, and Swiss troops which all had their own customs and spoke their own language. Similarly, French recruits who originated from different parts of the country spoke dialects that often were unintelligible for those who were not familiar with these vernaculars. In this particular multilingual context military leaders not only continuously needed to find ways to communicate with their troops, they also needed to discuss the battle plan with commanders who were often foreigners as well. Consequently, the French army was always in search of ‘ad hoc strategies’ to overcome the language barrier (Tozzi, 2012, 12-16). With the emergence of national armies, soldiers became unified by their state’s official mother tongue(s). Multilingual states tried to prevent miscommunication by categorizing their troops on grounds of shared language. The language barrier, therefore, no longer hampered communication between commanders and their troops to the extent it did in the past. Yet, new challenges arose as armed forces of various countries increasingly started to work together in multinational alliances and coalitions. Now, the language gap between partners needed to be addressed. This was, for instance, experienced by the French-British (and later also American) alliance in the First World War (Heimburger, 2012). After the Second World War – which of course was won by another coalition – more permanent structures for multinational military cooperation were established. The UN and NATO became the most prominent organizations for humanitarian intervention and collective security. Today, many countries no longer are capable of conducting large operations on their own (Soeters & Manigart, 2008, 1-3). It is, therefore, of crucial importance to deal with language matters in international military cooperation. The internationalization of military operations also increased the amount of foreign missions. During such deployments, soldiers came to realize that it was unsustainable to ‘ignore’ the languages of the local population (Kujamäki & Footitt, 2012, 120 -121). Throughout history armed forces had to deal with the peoples living in their area of operations. In case of linguistic differences, militaries, therefore, have relied on individuals whose skills enabled 12 Talk Up Front Introduction 13 them to mediate between soldiers and local parties (including the enemy). Here is where stability in affected nations which typically is accomplished through military interventions the interpreter entered the theatre of war. Whereas interpreters since of old have assisted by an international coalition. Current examples include UN missions in Mali and Congo armies, military organizations nowadays deploy these agents on an unprecedented scale. In and NATO missions in Afghanistan and Iraq. For that reason, peace (support) and stability Iraq and Afghanistan, for instance, thousands of civilians were recruited to work as linguists operations fulfill a predominant role in the spectrum of modern military operations. for foreign forces (Fitchett, 2019, 194). As will be explained below, many of today’s missions Precisely because such endeavors mostly seek to stabilize war-torn countries, it is crucial are simply impossible without interpreters who not only act as ‘(..) language experts in the for soldiers to establish ties with local parties (Bollen & Rietjens, 2008, 1-2; Bollen & Soeters, communication process between the foreign military and their compatriots’, but also ‘(…) as 2010, 174-176; Van der Meulen, Beeres, Soeters & Vogelaar, 2012, 11-12). As mentioned above, cultural, diplomatic and political mediators’ (Bos & Soeters, 2006, 266). The interpreters’s skills this confronts military organizations with a twofold challenge with regard to language therefore are indispensable for ‘(…) working and talking with foreign military troops, police management. First, the organization has to deal with language issues between the various officers, government officials, and indigenous members of the population’ (Hajjar, 2017, 93). national contingents of an international coalition. Secondly,