Green Criminology and the Corporate Extraction of Water in Canada By MARY O’HANDLEY A Thesis Submitted to Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Criminology September, 2019, Halifax, Nova Scotia Copyright Mary O’Handley, 2019 Approved: Dr. Stephen Schneider Supervisor Approved: Dr. Bonnie McElhinny External Examiner Approved: Dr. Wesley Tourangeau Second Reader Date: September 1, 2019 i ABSTRACT Green Criminology and the Corporate Extraction of Water in Canada By Mary O’Handley Inadequate government regulation of for-profit corporate water extraction is a significant issue in Canada but lacks scholarly research, notably in the field of criminology. The thesis aims to examine and critically analyze, from a green criminological perspective, issues associated with groundwater extraction in Canada for the commercial production of bottled water. Specifically, the research examines the extent to which for-profit corporate water extraction in Canada constitutes a green crime. Focusing on an exploration of the issues surrounding the Nestlé bottled water plant in Ontario, this thesis explores how notions of green crimes and green harms regarding corporate water extraction are conceptualized by four parties involved in the case study (i.e., the state, Nestlé Waters Canada, non-governmental organizations, and the local community). Based on definitions founded on a mixture green criminological literature and the findings from this case study, it is suggested that corporate water extraction should constitute a green crime. September 1, 2019 ii AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to recognize the following individuals for their contribution in the completion of this Master’s thesis: It has been an honour and a privilege to work with Dr. Schneider and Dr. Tourangeau. I cannot thank either of you enough for your commitment to this thesis. You have both been constant mentors, and have provided me with your invaluable expertise, guidance and support. In moments of self-doubt, you motivated me; you encouraged me to go above and beyond what I believed my abilities to be; you enlightened me on how to take innovative approaches to research; you provided me with the freedom to explore my research in my own way while simultaneously ensuring I remain on the right path; and, you have always advocated for my success. Thank-you to Dr. McElhinny for agreeing to act as the external examiner to this project. It has been a pleasure to have you on the committee for this thesis; I truly appreciate your valued feedback and am inspired by your passion as an environmental steward to Ontario’s waters. To all the faculty and staff in the Criminology Department, your support has not gone unnoticed. In particular, thank-you to those that taught the graduate courses in the first year of my Master’s degree; your commitment to the students and material helped build the foundations to complete a successful graduate thesis. My sincere appreciation also goes to the Saint Mary’s University Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for their financial support over the last two years. Thank-you to all who agreed to participate in this study. I am really grateful for your time, your valuable insights, your support for this research, and your commitment to water protection. I give my heartfelt thanks to my friends back at home and here in Halifax who have supported and encouraged me during my time as a graduate student. Thank-you to Andrea and Timi for growing with me throughout the last two years and building a safe space together where we can laugh, cry, and be our truest selves free of judgement. I am so proud of you and I am incredibly lucky to consider both of you some of my best friends. My deepest gratitude goes out to Bashar. Thank-you for always being there for me, and for believing in me even when I couldn’t believe in myself. Not a day goes by that you don’t manage to put a smile on my face. You have no idea how much your constant love, encouragement and support means to me, and how grateful I am to have you in my life. And finally, I want to give massive thanks to my wonderful family. Mom, Dad, Clare and Laurie, your unconditional love and support during every step of my journey as a graduate student means the world to me. Thank-you for always checking in with me and for all your words of encouragement and advice. You inspire me every day to be the best version of myself, and I would not be where I am today without you. iii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….i Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………..……ii INTRODUCTION.………………………………………………………..……………...1 CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………..………………….5 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..5 Environmental Degradation……………………………………………………..……….5 Impacts on Nonhuman Animals and the Earth…………………………………………8 Impacts on Humans……………………………………………………………………..9 Natural Resource Exploitation………………………………………………………....12 Groundwater Extraction, Laws and Corporate Use in Canada………………….………..14 Water Scarcity…………………………………………………………………………16 Water Extraction for Commercial Bottling………………………………………………18 The Marketing Success of Bottled Water………………………………………………..23 Literature Review Summary……………………………………………………………..24 CHAPTER TWO: ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK ………………............…..……..25 Introduction………………………………………………………………………....25 Green Criminology……………………………………………………………...……….25 Green Crimes and Green Harms………………………………………………………....27 Victims in Green Criminology…………………………………………………………...32 Corporate Crimes and Harms…………………………………………………………….36 Capitalist Interests and the State…………………………………………………………38 Analytical Framework Summary……………………………………………………….40 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN……........……….…...…..............….…..42 Introduction………....……………………………………………………..……………..42 Problem Statement and Contribution to Knowledge……………………..………………42 i)Voids in the Literature………………………….....…………………………...42 ii)Contribution to Knowledge……………………………………………..……..44 iii)Significance of this Research………………………………………………….45 Research Objectives and Questions…………...……………………………….……....…46 Research Design and Methods……………………….…………….....……….………….50 i) Case Study………….....………....………………………………………….…51 ii) Literature Review……………………………………………………………..54 iii) Review of the News Media Reports…………………………………………..55 iv iv) Review of Criminal Laws and Government Regulations……………………..56 v) Semi-Structured Interviews…………………………………………………...57 vi) Review of Additional Documents…………………………………………….59 vii) Thematic Analysis……………...…………………………………………….60 The Case Study…………………………………………………………………………...62 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS…..…………………………………….67 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....67 The State…...………………………………………………………..……………….…67 Theme 1: The Extent to which the Case Study Constitutes a Green Crime………..68 i) Federal Government................................................................................68 ii) Provincial (Ontario) Government………………………………...….70 Theme 2: Identifying Victims…………………………………………………....77 i) Federal Government................................................................................77 ii) Provincial (Ontario) Government………………………………...….79 Theme 3: Capitalism, State and Corporate Actions, and Environmental Degradation............................................................................................................81 Conclusion: The State………………………………………………..…………...85 Nestlé…...………………………………………………………..………………..…87 Theme 1: The Extent to which the Case Study Constitutes a Green Crime……….87 Theme 2: Identifying Victims…………………………………………………....93 Theme 3: Capitalism, State and Corporate Actions, and Environmental Degradation............................................................................................................96 Conclusion: Nestlé …………………....……………………………..…………...99 Local NGOs…...……………………………………………………….……………..…99 Theme 1: The Extent to which the Case Study Constitutes a Green Crime…….100 Theme 2: Identifying Victims………………………………………………....109 Theme 3: Capitalism, State and Corporate Actions, and Environmental Degradation..........................................................................................................113 Conclusion: Local NGOs …………………………………………..…………...117 The Community..……………………………………………………….…………..…119 Theme 1: The Extent to which the Case Study Constitutes a Green Crime……..119 Theme 2: Identifying Victims………………………………………………....125 Theme 3: Capitalism, State and Corporate Actions, and Environmental Degradation..........................................................................................................128 Conclusion: The Community... ………………………………………….....130 Summary of Findings………………………………………….............………………...131 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS……………………………....132 Introduction………………………………………………..………………………...132 Theme 1: Green Crimes and Green Harms……………………..………..……….......….133 i) Connecting the Findings to the Framework...........................................133 v ii)Determining what Constitutes a Green Crime………………………...135 iii) Determining How to Differentiate Green Crime from Green Harm...143 Theme 2: Victims.…………………………………………………………………….149 i) Connecting the Findings to the Framework ……………………….....149 ii)Determining Who/What is a Victim………..………....……..………..151 Theme 3: Capitalism, State and Corporate Actions and Environmental Degradation…….........................................................................…..........................…...154