This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. American Imperialism, Anthropology and Racial Taxonomy in the Philippines, 1898-1946 Nur Dayana Mohamed Ariffin Ph.D. The University of Edinburgh 2019 i SIGNED DECLARATION I declare that this thesis, entitled ‘American Imperialism, Anthropology and Racial Taxonomy in the Philippines, 1898-1946’ has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where states otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. I confirm that this thesis is being submitted for the doctoral degree in Science and Technology Studies. Signature: Name: Nur Dayana Mohamed Ariffin Date: 19th August 2019 ii ABSTRACT Racial classification and taxonomy of the population in the Philippines was formed primarily based on the colonial perception of race. In the time of the Spanish colonial era that spanned across three centuries, the population was segregated into the categories of Christians and the non-Christians. During the American occupation from 1898 to 1946 the American administration continued with the construction of racial categories in the Philippines propelled by Anglo-Saxon sentiments and based on anthropological theories and methods. A hierarchy of the population was formed, delineating first the Christians from the non-Christians, then further classifications were made based on ethnological characteristics. In this study, the racial taxonomy of the population in the Philippines is examined in three ways: First, I demonstrate that the archipelago was a focal point of imperial interactions, particularly in the exchanges of knowledge and ideas on race between Spain, Germany, Britain and the United States. Second, I analyse how American colonial institutions studied and governed different racial categories. Third, I amalgamate these discussions by looking at the censuses of the Philippines taken in the years 1903, 1918 and 1939 to demonstrate how racial classifications were standardised as a testament of colonial knowledge. The censuses illustrate how various institutional interactions influenced the categorisation of population, and how each census reflected anthropological knowledge and political currents in the Philippine islands. This thesis finds that racial taxonomy in the Philippines was not created in isolation, but a product of various interactions from imperial and institutional actors. Simultaneously, racial classifications, despite their ‘scientific’ conceptualisation, were also governed by the peculiarities of the inhabitants, environment and politics of the colonial entity. Keywords: racial taxonomy, anthropology, the Philippines, the United States, imperialism iii LAY SUMMARY History of race is part of the history of colonialism. In the Philippines, race and racial taxonomy is a manifestation of American colonial power’s control over the population. By forming racial classification and taxonomy of the population based on attributes related to ‘race’ at the time, such as physical characteristics, culture, language and religion, the American administrators were able to 1) impose policies to regulate the different ‘racial’ groups differently and 2) ensure their loyalty by restricting their socioeconomic mobility. This thesis looks into the process and the different forms of racial classifications of the Philippines under the American imperial control from the year 1898 to 1946. Among the efforts to classify the population was the establishment of institutions that encouraged anthropological research to ascertain the characteristics of the different groups in the population. Some institutions were founded to implement policies that were exclusive to a specific ‘racial’ group. Racial taxonomy of the population in the Philippines during the American occupation created a rift between the American occupiers and the Filipinos, and from one group of Filipinos known as the Christians, from those known as non-Christians. These differences were based on the racial superiority of one group in relation to the other. The racial taxonomy was not only a scientific pursuit but also understood in terms of the social and political circumstances of the era, whereby colonialism had justified the subjugation of people deem inferior and weak. The consequences of racial taxonomy of the Philippines can be seen in many ways until today, such as claims to ancestral lands by tribes formerly known as non-Christians, or the unique administration of the northern mountain region and the southern islands, areas that were formerly classified as ‘Special Provinces’ due to the majority of non-Christian population in these regions. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would not be made possible without the constant guidance from my supervisors, Dr Lawrence Dritsas and Dr Lukas Engelmann. Their patience, candour and dedication helped me realised my vision for this project. I would also like to thank the STIS community for all the tips, talks, feedbacks, and camaraderie; without which I would find it difficult to settle down in Scotland and embark on my PhD journey. I want to give thanks to the academics from outside of Edinburgh who had at generously offered me their time and knowledge, notably Carlos P. Tatel from the University of the Philippines Diliman, Paul A. Kramer from Vanderbilt University, and David Ludwig from Wageningen University in the Netherlands. I extend my gratitude to my sponsor, the Ministry of Education Malaysia and the University of Malaya for giving me the opportunity to pursue my dream. I also would like to express my sincerest thanks to my examiners, Sandra Khor Manickam and Richard Baxstrom for their comments and output. Settling down in Scotland would not be possible without the love and support from my parents, Ariffin and Nora, and my siblings, Izmir, Hana and Amir. I also would like to take this opportunity to express my love and thanks to my friends in the UK and in Malaysia for their encouragement and support when I am away, and their warm welcomes whenever I came home. It is without a doubt that all that I have accomplished was made a reality through the devotion and encouragement from my husband, Faiz. I thank you, darling. Lastly, I would like to convey my deepest, humblest gratitude to the people of the Philippines. I thank you for your parts in my growth as an educator and a historian. I hope this work does justice to your history and your futures. v TABLE OF CONTENTS SIGNED DECLARATION……………………………………………………………..……..I ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...…II LAY SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... IV LIST OF TABLES, MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ............................................................IX LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................ XI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1 1.1 OVERVIEW ………………………………………………………………………..…1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT………………………………………………………………3 1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................... 5 1.3.1 A Spanish Colony ....................................................................................... 6 1.3.2 America Advances .................................................................................... 10 1.3.3 Establishing Control in the Western Pacific .............................................. 13 1.3.4 Colonialism and The Evolution of Racial Taxonomy in the Philippines ...... 18 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION .................................................................................... 24 1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY .......................................................................................... 25 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY ................................................................................ 26 1.7 RESEARCH METHOD ..................................................................................... 27 1.7.1 Primary and Secondary Sources: Issues and Limitations .......................... 28 1.7.1.a Criteria of Primary and Secondary Sources in this Research…………………………………………………………….................. 29 1.7.1.b ‘Native Voice’ in the Primary Sources ........................................... 30 1.7.2 Multiple Narratives and the Ecological Framework .................................... 33 1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS ...................................................................... 35 CHAPTER 2 ANALYTICAL TOOLS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................................................................