Nationalism from the Left Balkan Studies Library Editor-in-Chief Zoran Milutinović, University College London Editorial Board Gordon N. Bardos, Columbia University Alex Drace-Francis, University of Liverpool Jasna Dragović-Soso, Goldsmiths, University of London Christian Voss, Humboldt University, Berlin Advisory Board Marie-Janine Calic, University of Munich Lenard J. Cohen, Simon Fraser University Radmila Gorup, Columbia University Robert M. Hayden, University of Pittsburgh Robert Hodel, Hamburg University Anna Krasteva, New Bulgarian University Galin Tihanov, The University of Manchester Maria Todorova, University of Illinois Andrew Wachtel, Northwestern University VOLUME 2 Nationalism from the Left The Bulgarian Communist Party during the Second World War and the Early Post-War Years By Yannis Sygkelos LEIDEN • BOSTON 2011 On the cover: Venev, Rabotnichesko Delo #03, 20.09.1944. The beast of fascism has been killed by the national and the red flags. Yet the national flag overshadows the red one. The sun of the new socialist era is shining, demonstrating the date of the communist takeover. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sygkelos, Yannis. Nationalism from the left : the Bulgarian Communist Party during the Second World War and the early post-war years / by Yannis Sygkelos. p. cm. — (Balkan studies library ; 2) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-19208-9 (hardback : acid-free paper) 1. Bulgarska komunisticheska partiia—History. 2. Communism—Bulgaria—History— 20th century. 3. Nationalism—Bulgaria—History—20th century. 4. Bulgaria— Politics and government—1944–1990. I. Title. II. Series. JN9609.A8K6854581 2011 324.2499’07509044—dc22 2010048896 ISSN 1877-6272 ISBN 978 9004 19208 9 Copyright 2011 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. CONTENTS List of Illustrations ........................................................................... ix Acknowledgements .......................................................................... xi Acronyms .......................................................................................... xiii Transliteration ................................................................................... xv Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 The ‘Archaeology’ of Marxist Nationalism ............................... 9 Chapter One Marxist Nationalism as Evolved by the BCP up to 1944 .......................................................................... 25 1.1 Regional Dynamics and the BCP Before and During World War Two ................................................................... 29 1.2 Elements of the National(ist) Discourse of the Bulgarian Communist Leadership .................................... 40 1.2.a The Anti-Imperialist Theory ................................. 40 1.2.b Patriotism and Internationalism .......................... 44 1.2.c Binary Divisions ..................................................... 45 1.3 The Partisan Movement ..................................................... 53 1.3.a Objectives and Apparatuses of the Partisan Movement ................................................................ 54 1.3.b Use of Commemoration and Anniversaries ....... 60 1.3.c Partisan Songs ......................................................... 63 1.3.d Word and Symbols ................................................. 65 1.3.e Key Elements of the Nationalist Discourse of the Resistance Movement ............................................. 67 Chapter Two The Nationalist Discourse in Domestic Politics ... 71 2.1 The Political Spectrum in Post-War Bulgaria ................. 73 2.2 Disadvantages and Advantages of the BCP ..................... 81 2.3 Communist Tactics ............................................................. 87 2.4 Self-presentation of the BCP as National Party .............. 91 2.5 Nation, People, State, and Party ........................................ 95 2.6 National Enemies ................................................................ 104 2.7 The Ethnic ‘Other’ .............................................................. 111 vi contents Chapter Three The Nationalist Discourse with Regard to the International Arena ..................................................................... 119 3.1 Binary Divisions ................................................................. 125 3.2 The Nation and its Friends at the International Level ... 128 3.2.a Socialist Patriotism and Proletarian Internationalism ...................................................... 128 3.2.b The Anti-imperialist Idea and the Cominform ... 132 3.2.c The Soviet Union .................................................... 133 3.2.d Pan-Slavism ............................................................. 136 3.2.e Non-Slav Socialist Friends ..................................... 139 3.3 The Nation and its Enemies on the International Level ... 139 3.3 a The Past and the Present Worst Enemy of the Slav Peoples .............................................................. 140 3.3.b Neighbouring Enemy Nations of Bulgaria .......... 142 3.4 National questions .............................................................. 143 3.4.a The Thracian Question .......................................... 144 3.4.b The Macedonian Question .................................... 149 Chapter Four Flagging Nationhood: Bulgarian Communist (Re)construction of the National Past ..................................... 161 4.1 (Re)construction of the Past: Institutional Framework ... 163 4.2 A Peculiar Marxist Version of History-Writing ............. 172 4.3 An Outline of How the Bulgarian Communists Narrated the past of Bulgaria ............................................. 182 4.3.a Bulgarian Lands Since Prehistory ......................... 182 4.3.b Presentation of Origin ............................................ 184 4.3.c Byzantine Times ...................................................... 187 4.3.d Cyril and Methodius .............................................. 189 4.3.e Survival of the Nation Under the Ottoman Yoke (14th–18th century) ............................................... 191 4.3.f National Liberation Movement Against the Turkish Yoke (circa 1860-1878) ............................ 196 4.3.g National Integration: Eastern Rumelia- Macedonia (1885–1913) ........................................ 204 4.3.h Bulgaria as a Semi-Colonial Country (Inter-War Years) .................................................... 206 4.3.i Second World War—Resistance Movement— 9 September 1944 .................................................... 208 contents vii Chapter Five Flagging Nationhood: Events and Symbols ...... 213 5.1 Celebrating the Bulgarian Nation in the Late 1940s ....... 215 5.2 Anniversaries and Commemorations of Plainly National Character .............................................................. 219 5.3 Anniversaries and Commemorations of National and International Character ...................................................... 223 5.4 Anniversaries and Commemorations of a Largely Socialist Character .............................................................. 224 5.5 National Symbols ................................................................ 228 5.5.a The National Emblem ............................................ 229 5.5.b The National Flag ................................................... 230 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 235 Marxist Nationalism .................................................................... 239 Why Nationalism? ........................................................................ 244 Appendix One Political Parties .................................................. 251 Appendix Two Figures ................................................................. 255 Appendix Three Tables ................................................................ 269 Bibliography ...................................................................................... 273 Index .................................................................................................. 287 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Anti-Monarchist Poster, Angelushev (1946) ......................... 48 2. Untitled caricature, Venev (1944) ........................................... 85 3. Fly-sheet on 1st May ................................................................. 92 4. Poster, “The Opposition Platform” ......................................... 108 5. Caricature, “In Restaurant ‘Paris’ ”, Zhendov (1946) ............ 147 6. A school poster ......................................................................... 166 7. The symbol of Septemvrists ..................................................... 167 8. Untitled