Florida International University FIU Digital Commons FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations University Graduate School 4-1-2002 Sugar and coffee: a history of settler agriculture in nineteenth-century Liberia William Ezra Allen Florida International University DOI: 10.25148/etd.FI13101591 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd Part of the African History Commons Recommended Citation Allen, William Ezra, "Sugar and coffee: a history of settler agriculture in nineteenth-century Liberia" (2002). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1068. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1068 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University Graduate School at FIU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of FIU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida SUGAR AND COFFEE: A HISTORY OF SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY LIBERIA A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in HISTORY by William Ezra Allen 2002 To: Dean Arthur W. Herriott College of Arts and Sciences This dissertation, written by William Ezra Allen, and entitled Sugar and Coffee: A History of Settler Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century Liberia, having been approved in respect to style and intellectual content, is referred to you for judgment. We have read this dissertation and recommend that it be approved. Edmund Abaka Roderick Neumann James Sweet n .Clarence Taylor Akinwumi Ogundiran, Major Professor Date of Defense: April 1, 2002 The dissertation of William Ezra Allen is approved. Dean Arthur W. Herriott College of Arts and Sciences Dean Douglas Wartzok University Graduate School Florida International University, 2002 ii ©Copyright 2002 by William Ezra Allen All rights reserved. iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the people of my hometown Palala, Liberia, and to the memories of my father, Nathaniel G. A. Allen, and Christopher Gray, friend and academic advisor. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the numerous persons and institutions that contributed to make this dissertation possible. Research funding for the dissertation was provided by the Rockefeller Foundation African Dissertation Internship Awards. My profound appreciation goes to the faculty, staff and students of the University of Liberia who were always favorably inclined to offer assistance during my research in 1999. Particularly, I thank the instructors of the Demographic Unit at the University of Liberia (including Dr. Al-Hassan Conteh and Mr. Kaye) for their valuable support. I also express my gratitude to my Liberian friends, such as Alaric Tokpa and Augustine Toure, for their encouragement. Thanks are equally due to "Ma Jesse" and her family for the tasty Liberian dishes (e.g., dry-rice and fried fish) I ate at her home when I returned from the field. I would also like to acknowledge the generous financial contribution, in the form of tuition wavers, that I received from the Department of History of Florida International University (FIU). Most certainly, I would not be writing these acknowledgments at this time had it not been for the kindness of Professor Chris Gray, one of the persons the dissertation is dedicated to. Chris was my classmate, friend, professor and academic advisor. He encouraged me to enroll in the doctorate program at FIU in the Fall of 1996 where he had recently been hired as an assistant professor in the history department. He guided me through the early, difficult years of graduate school and closely supervised the writing of my dissertation proposal-even as he lay tragically ill, facing imminent death. v He passed away on October 16, 2000. To his wife Kisanga and the children, who were my family away from home, I will always be grateful. I thank all the following members of my Dissertation Committee for their unwavering support and guidance: Dr. Clarence Taylor, Dr. James Sweet, Dr. Edmund Abaka, Dr. Roderick Neumann and Dr. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Special thanks go to Dr. Ogundiran (my Major Advisor), who was thrust into the leadership role as a result of the untimely death of Chris. His counsel and supervision, at a very critical juncture of the dissertation-writing process, was admirable. I express my indebtedness to Professor John C. Yoder of Whitworth College in Spokane, Washington, who served as my unofficial Outside Reader (i.e., the Liberianist). Dr. Yoder patiently read all my initial drafts and made detailed comments and suggestions. I owe the greatest debt to my family in Liberia and the United States for their tireless assistance and understanding. To Gormah Allen, my non-literate mother, who "scratched" the farm laboriously so I could go to the "Whiteman House" for an education, I say in Liberian parlance, "Old Ma, God will continue to bless you yaa!" Finally, I thank my wife, Denise, for her encouragement and steadfast support. Her experience and selflessness made my academic sojourn so much easier. vi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION SUGAR AND COFFEE: A HISTORY OF SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY LIBERIA by William Ezra Allen Florida International University, 2002 Miami, Florida Professor Akinwumi Ogundiran, Major Professor This dissertation is about commercial agriculture in nineteenth-century Liberia. Based primarily on the archives of the American Colonization Society (founder of Liberia), it examines the impact of environmental and demographic constraints on an agrarian settler society from 1822 to the 1890s. Contrary to the standard interpretation, which linked the poor state of commercial agriculture to the settlers' disdain for cultivation, this dissertation argues that the scarcity of labor and capital impeded the growth of commercial agriculture. The causes of the scarcity were high mortality, low immigration and the poverty of the American "Negroes" who began to settle Liberia in 1822. Emigration to Liberia meant almost certain death and affliction for many immigrants because they encountered a new set of diseases. Mortality was particularly high during the early decades of colonization. From 1822 to 1843, about 48 percent of all immigrants died of various causes, usually within their first year. The bulk of the deaths is attributed to malaria. There was no natural increase in the population for this early vii period and because American "Negroes" were unenthusiastic about relocation to Liberia, immigration remained sparse throughout the century. Low immigration, combined with the high death rate, deprived the fledgling colony of its potential human resource, especially for the cultivation of labor-intensive crops, like sugar cane and coffee. Moreover, even though females constituted approximately half of the settlers, they seldom performed agricultural labor. The problem of labor was compounded by the scarcity of draft animals. Liberia is in the region where trypanosomiasis occurs. The disease is fatal to large livestock. Therefore, animal-drawn plows, common in the United States, were never successfully transplanted in Liberia. Besides, the dearth of livestock obstructed the development of the sugar industry since many planters depended on oxen-powered mills because they could not afford to buy the more expensive steam engine mills. Finally, nearly half of the immigrants were newly emancipated slaves. Usually these former bondsmen arrived in Liberia penniless. Consequently, they lacked the capital to invest in large-scale plantations. The other categories of immigrants (e.g., those who purchased their freedom), were hardly better off than the emancipated slaves. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. IN TROD U CTION ................................................... 1 Purpose of Research ................................................. 3 Methodology and Sources ........................................... 8 Prim ary Sources .................................................... 9 Literature Review ................................................. 13 History of the Colonization Movement and the Founding of Liberia ........ 13 M igration and Disease .......................................... 16 Supplementary Literature on Sugar and Coffee Production ............... 18 Liberian Agriculture ............................................ 19 The Motives for the Neglect of Agriculture .............................. 21 Situating Liberian Agriculture in the Context of West African History ......... 28 The Impact of Legitimate Commerce ................................ 28 Probable Origins of the Assumption that Agriculture was Neglected ....... 34 II AMERICO-LIBERIAN SETTLEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL ECOLOGY 1822-1850........................................................41 Establishment of the Liberian Settlement ............................... 41 Formation of the American Colonization Society ...................... 41 Imm igration to Liberia .......................................... 47 United States Immigrants ..................................... 48 The Recaptured Africans or Liberated Africans ..................... 50 The Barbadians ............................................. 51 Agricultural Ecology .............................................. 54 Diseases, Seasonality and Soil Quality .............................. 54 From Towns to Farms: Settlement History and Agricultural Expansion ........ 59 The Era of the Merchants ........................................ 59 The First Agricultural