How Sanctions Work Lessons from South Africa Edited by Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY SERIES General Editor: Timothy M. Shaw, Professor of Political Science and International Development Studies, and Director of the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia Recent titles include: Pradeep Agrawal, Subir V. Gokarn, Veena Mishra, Kirit S. Parikh and Kunal Sen ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING IN EAST ASIA AND INDIA: Perspectives on Policy Reform Deborah Bräutigam CHINESE AID AND AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT: Exporting Green Revolution Steve Chan, Cal Clark and Danny Lam (editors) BEYOND THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE: East Asia’s Political Economies Reconsidered Jennifer Clapp ADJUSTMENT AND AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA: Farmers, the State and the World Bank in Guinea Robert W. Cox (editor) THE NEW REALISM: Perspectives on Multilateralism and World Order Ann Denholm Crosby DILEMMAS IN DEFENCE DECISION-MAKING: Constructing Canada’s Role in NORAD, 1958–96 Diane Ethier ECONOMIC ADJUSTMENT IN NEW DEMOCRACIES: Lessons from Southern Europe Stephen Gill (editor) GLOBALIZATION, DEMOCRATIZATION AND MULTILATERALISM Jeffrey Henderson (editor), assisted by Karoly Balaton and Gyorgy Lengyel INDUSTRIAL TRANSFORMATION IN EASTERN EUROPE IN THE LIGHT OF THE EAST ASIAN EXPERIENCE Jacques Hersh and Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt (editors) THE AFTERMATH OF ‘REAL EXISTING SOCIALISM’ IN EASTERN EUROPE, Volume 1: Between Western Europe and East Asia David Hulme and Michael Edwards (editors) NGOs, STATES AND DONORS: Too Close for Comfort? Staffan Lindberg and Árni Sverrisson (editors) SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN DEVELOPMENT: The Challenge of Globalization and Democratization Anne Lorentzen and Marianne Rostgaard (editors) THE AFTERMATH OF ‘REAL EXISTING SOCIALISM’ IN EASTERN EUROPE, Volume 2: People and Technology in the Process of Transition Stephen D. McDowell GLOBALIZATION, LIBERALIZATION AND POLICY CHANGE: A Political Economy of India’s Communications Sector Juan Antonio Morales and Gary McMahon (editors) ECONOMIC POLICY AND THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY: The Latin American Experience Ted Schrecker (editor) SURVIVING GLOBALISM: The Social and Environmental Challenges Ann Seidman, Robert B. Seidman and Janice Payne (editors) LEGISLATIVE DRAFTING FOR MARKET REFORM: Some Lessons from China Caroline Thomas and Peter Wilkin (editors) GLOBALIZATION AND THE SOUTH Kenneth P. Thomas CAPITAL BEYOND BORDERS: States and Firms in the Auto Industry, 1960–94 Geoffrey R. D. Underhill (editor) THE NEW WORLD ORDER IN INTERNATIONAL FINANCE Henry Veltmeyer, James Petras and Steve Vieux NEOLIBERALISM AND CLASS CONFLICT IN LATIN AMERICA: A Comparative Perspective on the Political Economy of Structural Adjustment Robert Wolfe FARM WARS: The Political Economy of Agriculture and the International Trade Regime International Political Economy Series Series Standing Order ISBN 0–333–71708–2 hardcover Series Standing Order ISBN 0–333–71110–6 paperback (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England How Sanctions Work Lessons from South Africa Edited by Neta C. Crawford Assistant Professor of Political Science Department of Political Science University of Massachusetts, Amherst and Audie Klotz Associate Professor of Political Science Department of Political Science University of Illinois, Chicago Selection, editorial matter and Chapter 2 © Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz 1999 Chapters 1, 3 and 5 © Neta C. Crawford 1999 Chapters 10 and 14 © Audie Klotz 1999 Chapter 8 © Xavier Carim, Audie Klotz, and Olivier Leblem 1999 Chapters 4, 6, 7, 9, and 11 –13 © Macmillan Press Ltd 1999 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 1999 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 0–333–72551–4 hardcover ISBN 0–333–72552–2 paperback A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire Published in the United States of America by ST. MARTIN’S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 0–312–21854–0 clothbound ISBN 0–312–21856–7 paperback Contents List of Tables vii List of Maps viii Acknowledgments ix Notes on the Contributors x Abbreviations xiii PART I INTRODUCTION 1 Trump Card or Theater? An Introduction to Two Sanctions Debates 3 Neta C. Crawford 2 How Sanctions Work: A Framework for Analysis 25 Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz PART II STRATEGIC SANCTIONS 3 How Arms Embargoes Work 45 Neta C. Crawford 4 Sanctions and the Nuclear Industry 75 David Fig 5 Oil Sanctions Against Apartheid 103 Neta C. Crawford PART III ECONOMIC SANCTIONS 6 The US Divestment Movement 129 Meg Voorhes 7 Disinvestment by Multinational Corporations 145 Mzamo P. Mangaliso 8 The Political Economy of Financial Sanctions 159 Xavier Carim, Audie Klotz, and Olivier Lebleu v vi Contents 9 “Sanctions Hurt but Apartheid Kills!”: The Sanctions Campaign and Black Workers 178 Tshidiso Maloka PART IV SOCIAL SANCTIONS 10 Diplomatic Isolation 195 Audie Klotz 11 “Not Cricket”: The Effects and Effectiveness 213 of the Sport Boycott David R. Black 12 Cultural Boycotts and Political Change 232 Nomazengele A. Mangaliso PART V IMPLICATIONS 13 Regional Dimensions of Sanctions 247 Gilbert M. Khadiagala 14 Making Sanctions Work: Comparative Lessons 264 Audie Klotz Appendix: Chronology of Sanctions Against Apartheid 283 Index 288 List of Tables 2.1 Models of influence and their assumptions 27 2.2 Sites for potential consequences of sanctions 31 3.1 Armscor subsidiaries 55 3.2 Official expenditures for arms acquisition 56 3.3 Armscor and total arms industry employment 58 4.1 The Franco-Belgian consortium charged with building Koeberg 92 5.1 South Africa’s oil consumption by sector in 1974 107 5.2 Number of licensed vehicles in South Africa, 1970–92 108 5.3 Coal consumption and total electrical output of Eskom by energy source, 1960–90 109 14.1 Tools, targets, and consequences 266 vii List of Maps 1. South Africa xv 2. Energy-related assets 105 3. “Independent” Homelands 201 4. Southern Africa 249 5. Regional rail transport routes 251 viii Acknowledgments This project would not have been possible without financial and institutional support from the Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies at Brown University, which allowed us to gather together as a group in Providence, RI. We also thank the Interna- tional Studies Association for a workshop grant which enabled us to present early drafts of the papers at its April 1996 annual con- ference. The discussants and participants at both meetings, includ- ing Tom Biersteker, Margaret Doxey, Jendayi Frazer, Arlene Getz, Willard Johnson, Norma Kriger, Kim Nossal, David Rowe, and Newell Stultz, offered invaluable insights. The individual chapter authors also generously shared their knowledge and judgment with us and each other. We greatly appreciate the enthusiasm and patience of Tim Shaw, Aruna Vasudevan and Keith Povey throughout the editing and publication processes. Neta Crawford gratefully acknowl- edges the overall support of Jill Breitbarth, the research assistance of Amy Nash, and the financial support of the University of Massa- chusetts, Amherst, and the Humanitarianism and War Project of Brown University, which allowed her to make research trips to South Africa and meet some of the chapter authors on their home ground. Audie Klotz gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Campus Research Board of the University of Illinois at Chicago and thanks Dave Black, Cecelia Lynch, Kim Nossal and Tim Shaw for sage advice at critical moments. Amherst and Arlington, Massachusetts NETA C. CRAWFORD Chicago, Illinois AUDIE KLOTZ ix Notes on the Contributors David R. Black is Associate Professor of Political Science at Dalhousie University. His articles and book chapters include work on the role of “middle powers” in southern Africa; Canada in North–South relations; the “new” South Africa in Africa; and the role of rugby in South African politics and society. He is co-editor, with Larry Swatuk, of Bridging the Rift: The New South Africa in Africa (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997) and co-author, with John Nauright, of Rugby and the South African Nation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). Xavier Carim is Deputy Director