EXAMINING THE MEANINGFULNESS OF WORK OF ORGANIZATIONALLY EMPLOYED JOURNALISTS AND SELF-EMPLOYED MEDIA ENTREPRENEURS By KORTNI F. ALSTON A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2016 © 2016 Kortni F. Alston To William, Julia, and William Alston, Jr. who have always inspired me. As extraordinary parents and my amazing sibling, thank you for allowing me to live the life that I have always imagined. Your continuous support made this all possible. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Aristotle said it best, “Pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work” (Aristotle, n.d., para. 1). It has been a pleasure and an honor working with my dissertation committee. I would like to thank Dr. Julie Dodd, Dr. Johanna Cleary, Dr. Churchill Roberts, and Dr. Ryan Duffy. These four esteemed scholars shared their expertise, direction, and guidance. I thank Dr. Dodd for serving as my dissertation chair. It was Dr. Dodd’s work and teaching philosophy that I was so drawn to. After teaching more than 11,000 students at the University of Florida, she is retiring as a professor. Her student-centered approach with understanding the needs of her mentees is exemplary. I feel so fortunate to have learned from such an extraordinary educator. She has inspired me on every turn. I thank Dr. Johanna Cleary serving on my committee after her retirement. She has inspired me on so many levels. Dr. Cleary worked as a news director and later became a scholar. Her drive is matched by her compassionate support. I thank Dr. Churchill Roberts for his motivation, cheerfulness, and inspirational stories. His work as a professor and documentarian inspires my desire to continue to produce programming post-doctorate. I thank Dr. Duffy for inspiring my passion to study positive psychology. His mentorship exposed me to the science of happiness, meaningful work, and calling. Dr. Duffy introduced me to the world of positive psychology and the International Positive Psychology Association, which has been life- changing for me as a scholar and practitioner. The level of support was also evident throughout the College of Journalism and Communications. I thank Dr. Debbie Treise for serving as a champion always in my corner. Like Dr. Dodd, her student-centered approach has been advantageous on both 4 a professional and personal level. This level of motivation, inspiration and empathic understanding was evident in the staff, especially, Jody Hodge, Kim Holloway, and Sarah Lee. Aside from the department, Denise Long at the Institutional Review Board has been extremely supportive. Her inspirational lunches and motivational messages have cheered me up and cheered me on. I thank the professional journalism organizations that have served me on every level of my career from television reporter to news director turned scholar. First, I like to thank the National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ) and our President Sarah Glover. I truly appreciate your continuous support and for NABJ members and friends that went above and beyond. I thank Dawn Angelique Roberts, April Turner, Scott Berry, Michael Lyles Jr., Gayle Hurd, Tenisha Taylor Bell, Davina Sutton, Sandra Bentil, Dr. Trevy McDonald, Erika Brown, Kerry Charles, Jasmine Felder, and Troy Johnson. I thank the Society of Professional Journalists, especially Jennifer Royer and Maggie LaMar for your support and resources. I thank the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, and our Executive Director Alberto Mendoza for your time and commitment to this investigation. I thank the Native American Journalist Association and our Executive Director Rebecca Landsberry for your enthusiasm and support. I thank NewU and especially, Doug Mitchell for his leadership, guidance, and support. An African proverb states that it takes a village and obtaining a Ph.D. is no exception. I thank my friends and family members that served as my happiness cheering squad. I thank you for always cheering me on especially Dr. Shaunee Wallace, Dr. Faith Abbott, Dr. April Abbott, Jeanette Jordan, Rachel Mann, Carla Willis, Teria Rogers, Travis Sattiewhite, Danny Hermosillo, T.J. Aulds, Rob London, Amber 5 Christoferson, Kandia Johnson, Thomas Ireland, Travis Brown, Benji and Claire Kurtz, Monica McDonald, Karen Schradin Ladley, Kathy Harper, Ginger Blackstone, Erica Newport, Jennifer Brindisi, Amy Gustavson Garland, Gina Marinelli, Sharon Wells, Theresa Brooks, Betsy Rhame-Minor, Monica Lindsey Ponder, and Peggy Dooley. My mentors have served me beyond measure, especially Brett Chambers, Dr. Terry Stephens, Dr. Pamela Love-Manning, Ardenia Myrick, Neyda Martinez, Rose Tibayan, Dr. Bala Subramanian, and Denise Bates. Lastly, my family has transcended the term of unwavering support. I thank my father (William Alston, Sr.) and mother (Julia M. Alston) for teaching me that there are no limits. I thank my brother (William Alston, Jr.) for providing positivity, support, and motivating me on all levels. I thank you for always reminding me of my strengths, passion, and purpose. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................... 4 LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... 10 LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... 11 LIST OF DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................. 12 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 15 Digital World Engages Audience and Advertisers ................................................... 15 Power Struggle in Broadcasting Improves Industry ................................................. 17 Differentiation Strategy ............................................................................................ 19 Innovation-Development Process ............................................................................ 20 Print Journalism and Innovation .............................................................................. 23 The State of Media in the 21st Century ................................................................... 24 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 28 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 35 The Meaning in Meaningful Work ............................................................................ 35 Map of Meaningful Work .......................................................................................... 36 The Elements of the Map of Meaning ...................................................................... 37 Developing and Becoming Self ......................................................................... 37 Unity with Others ............................................................................................... 38 Expressing Full Potential ................................................................................... 39 Service to Others ............................................................................................... 39 Tensions between Doing and Being versus Self and Others ............................ 40 Good Entrepreneurs: Monetization to Meaning ...................................................... 40 Job Satisfaction in Journalism ................................................................................. 42 Creativity in Self-Actualizing People .................................................................. 45 Job Satisfaction among Minorities ..................................................................... 46 Race and ethnicity ...................................................................................... 46 Gender differences ..................................................................................... 48 Media Entrepreneurs ............................................................................................... 49 Disruption in Journalism .......................................................................................... 51 Research Questions and Hypotheses ..................................................................... 54 7 3 METHODS ............................................................................................................... 57 Survey Methodology: Web-based Approach to Journalist Engagement ................. 57 Design ...................................................................................................................... 59 Pilot Testing ............................................................................................................. 61 Participants .............................................................................................................. 63 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 64 Survey Distribution ................................................................................................... 65 Asian American Journalists Association ...........................................................