AI Magazine Volume 28 Number 4 (2007) (© AAAI) Articles On John McCarthy’s 80th Birthday, in Honor of His Contributions Patrick J. Hayes and Leora Morgenstern ■ John McCarthy’s contributions to computer sci- approach to artificial intelligence, as well as to ence and artificial intelligence are legendary. He the development of the computer language invented Lisp, made substantial contributions to Lisp. early work in timesharing and the theory of com- John McCarthy’s contributions to computer putation, and was one of the founders of artificial science and artificial intelligence are legendary. intelligence and knowledge representation. This He revolutionized the use of computers with article, written in honor of McCarthy’s 80th birth- day, presents a brief biography, an overview of the his innovations in timesharing; he invented major themes of his research, and a discussion of Lisp, one of the longest-lived computer lan- several of his major papers. guages in use; he made substantial contribu- tions to early work in the mathematical theory of computation; he was one of the founders of the field of artificial intelligence; and he fore- saw the need for knowledge representation ifty years ago, John McCarthy embarked before the field of AI was even properly born. on a bold and unique plan to achieve John McCarthy turned 80 on September 4, Fhuman-level intelligence in computers. It 2007. This article is a celebration of that mile- was not his dream of an intelligent computer stone. It includes a glimpse of McCarthy’s life, that was unique, or even first: Alan Turing (Tur- an overview of the major themes of his work, ing 1950) had envisioned a computer that and a discussion of several of his major papers. could converse intelligently with humans back The aim is to introduce a more complete pic- in 1950; by the mid 1950s, there were several ture of McCarthy’s long-term research to the AI researchers (including Herbert Simon, Allen Magazine readership. We hope it will help read- Newell, Oliver Selfridge, and Marvin Minsky) ers appreciate the range and depth of innova- working in what would be called artificial intel- tion in McCarthy’s research. ligence. What distinguished McCarthy’s plan was his emphasis on using mathematical logic Background both as a language for representing the knowl- edge that an intelligent machine should have McCarthy was born in Boston in 1927 to John and as a means for reasoning with that knowl- Patrick and Ida Glatt McCarthy, immigrants edge. This emphasis on mathematical logic was from, respectively, Ireland and Lithuania. The to lead to the development of the logicist Depression started a few years after his birth; Copyright © 2007, American Association for Artificial Intelligence. All rights reserved. ISSN 0738-4602 WINTER 2007 93 Articles matics and decided he wanted to go to the Cal- ifornia Institute of Technology. At 15, he bought the calculus textbook then used in the Caltech freshman calculus course and taught it to himself in its entirety. In the hubris of youth, he applied only to Caltech, writing a one-sentence statement of purpose on his col- lege application: “I intend to be a professor of mathematics.” When he arrived at Caltech, he discovered that the textbook for the course had been changed. But the self-study paid off. Before classes started, he bumped into one of the instructors for freshman calculus, asked him a detailed question related to one of the textbook problems on which he had been working, and showed him his notebook with worked-out problems. ”I don’t want you in my class,” that instructor said, and arranged for him to be given credit for freshman calculus. The same thing happened when he met the instructor for sophomore calculus. Ultimately, he was plunked down, at the age of 16, in a graduate mathematics class. Birth of AI After McCarthy received his Bachelor of Science from Caltech, he began his graduate studies there. For McCarthy, the intellectual ferment at the time was palpable. The excitement generat- ed by the use of early computers to decode ene- my messages—and thus help win World War II—was still running high. The theoretical foun- dations for computing had recently been laid by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing. There was a growing interest in the workings of the mind, in what would later be called cognitive science. In September 1948, McCarthy went to the Hixon Symposium on Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior (Jeffress 1951), a conference that joined together leading researchers in different John McCarthy. areas related to cognitive science, including mathematicians Alan Turing and Claude Shan- non and psychologist Karl Lashley. As he lis- tened to the discussions comparing computers McCarthy’s parents lost their house, and the and the brain, McCarthy had a watershed family—which now included a second child— moment. From that time on, his chief interests became briefly peripatetic. They lived for a related to the development of machines that short while in New York and then in Cleveland could think like people. Indeed, some of the before finally settling in Los Angeles, where the example problems that are present in senior McCarthy worked as an organizer for the McCarthy’s papers, such as the monkeys and Amalgamated Clothing Workers. bananas problem, come from the Hixon Sym- Like many child prodigies, John McCarthy posium: Karl Lashley described an ape pulling was partly self-educated. Due to childhood ill- over a box and climbing on it in order to get a ness, he began school a year late, but he quick- bunch of bananas, and McCarthy took that as a ly made up the time on his own, skipped sev- base level for intelligent reasoning. eral grades, and wound up graduating from McCarthy began to consider the possibility high school two years early. When he was a of constructing intelligent computers. This was teenager he developed an interest in mathe- all at a rather abstract level, since at that point, 94 AI MAGAZINE Articles no computers were available to him. He con- sort of papers that he wanted to encourage. He ceived of two interacting finite automata, one therefore came up with artificial intelligence—a representing the human brain and one repre- term that would make it clear that the goal was senting the environment. When he arrived at to construct machines that acted in a truly Princeton in 1949, he spoke to John von Neu- intelligent manner. It was this term that he mann about his ideas; von Neumann was inter- used in 1955 when he began writing—with ested and told him to write them up. But Minsky, Shannon, and Nathaniel Rochester, a McCarthy, upon further reflection, was dissat- researcher at IBM—the proposal to fund the isfied with his original idea. He realized that he first conference dedicated to the topic, the needed to somehow represent the knowledge famous Dartmouth conference on artificial in the human brain, and that a pair of finite intelligence. automata, even if they could accurately repre- The Dartmouth conference—held where sent the behavior of a human brain interacting McCarthy was then on the faculty of mathe- with the environment, didn’t have enough matics—took place in the summer of 1956 and structure to represent human knowledge. is often considered to be the start of organized Although he hadn’t yet named it, McCarthy research into artificial intelligence. One does- had at this point already identified the need for n’t create a field merely by naming it, of course, knowledge representation. Twenty years later, and McCarthy discovered that, as with the McCarthy was to formalize this intuition when Automata Studies volume, there were some par- he made the distinction between a metaphysi- ticipants who came and spoke about their pet cally adequate representation and an episte- projects, whether or not they had anything to mologically adequate representation (Mc C- do with artificial intelligence. Still, this served arthy and Hayes 1969). (McCarthy’s ideas on as a way of getting four researchers who were interacting automata were independently doing work in the field—McCarthy, Minsky, invented and developed by Larry Fogel [1962] Newell, and Simon—to meet and talk and plan some years later.) for future research projects in artificial intelli- McCarthy finished his Ph.D. in two years, on gence. The main accomplishment of the Dart- a problem in partial differential equations that mouth conference was not any particular idea he had discovered. He stayed on for a couple of or approach to AI, but the commitment of four years at Princeton as an instructor. It was dur- researchers toward defining a discipline of arti- ing this time that he met Marvin Minsky, who ficial intelligence and the bonds created began his graduate studies at Princeton just as between these colleagues. McCarthy was starting his instructorship. McCarthy and Minsky discovered a shared pas- sion for research into constructing intelligent The MIT Years machines; the two were to collaborate on While McCarthy was at Dartmouth, John many projects over the next decade. Kemeny, then chairman of Dartmouth’s math In 1952, McCarthy spent a summer working department, arranged for McCarthy to receive at Bell Labs. He approached Claude Shannon a one-year Sloan fellowship. This allowed him with the idea of collecting papers on the topic to spend the 1956–1957 academic year at any of intelligent machines. Claude Shannon, in institution of his choosing. He decided on the addition to his seminal contributions in infor- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, because mation theory, analog circuit design, and com- it had access to an IBM computer. (The com- putational linguistics, had recently published a puter was physically located at MIT, but MIT groundbreaking paper on how one could pro- had access to it for only one eight-hour shift gram a machine to play chess.