POLICING MECHANISMS TO COUNTER TERRORIST ATTACKS IN SOUTH AFRICA by RUFUS KALIDHEEN Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MAGISTER TECHNOLOGICAE (Policing) SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. R. SNYMAN MARCH 2008 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Greatness is not where we stand, but in what direction we are moving. We must sail sometimes in the wind and sometimes against it – but sail we must and not drift, nor lie at anchor – Oliver Wendell Holmes Certainly, completing this thesis has been a rite of passage into realm of self-knowledge, and I could not have achieved this success without the encouragement and support of the following people: • Professor Rika Snyman: for her encouragement for the completion of this thesis. • My family: many thanks to my family who have accommodated my absence in the fulfilment of this thesis. • My Editor: thanks for your constant encouragement, support and guidance. • Senior executive members of the SAPS: my thanks to your support in the form of access to the ambits of the service. • Ernest and Dumi: thanks for your words of encouragement throughout my study. This thesis is dedicated to ‘DJ’ and the belief that ‘impossible is nothing’. ii DECLARATION I, Rufus Kalidheen (student number: 36788333), hereby declare that ‘Policing Mechanisms to counter terrorist attacks in South Africa’ is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted, have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ………………………….. …………………….. R. Kalidheen Date iii ABSTRACT Terrorism remains a cardinal threat to national, regional, and international peace and security. It violates the fundamental principles of law, order, human rights and freedom and remains an affront to the Global Charter of the United Nations (UN) and the values and principles enunciated in Africa’s Constitutive Act of the African Union (AU). Moreover, it presents a grave and direct threat to the territorial integrity, security and stability of States. In this regard, effective counter terrorism mechanisms and approaches remain fundamental tools in curbing the threats and devastating effects of terrorism. Since the advent of the ‘war on terror’, issues regarding terrorism and counter-terrorism have become pronounced norms within the international realm. Yet, while an abundance of literature has been focussed and analyzed on counter terrorism approaches within the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK), Russia and India; little has been documented on effective counter terrorism approaches in South Africa post-2001. Given emerging trends of terrorist camps within the country and the fact that South Africa will be hosting the international event of the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup, it is imperative that South Africa improves the overall direction of its counter terrorism strategy. Essentially, this study offers recommendations for the most effective counterterrorism mechanism, which will aid policing in South Africa. History and current events indicate that South African Police Service (SAPS) has the capacity and capability to successfully deal with threats of terrorism. What is lacking is a concrete proactive counter terrorism approach that makes SAPS stand out as the lead department in countering terrorism. Yet, it should be borne in mind that the most important principle of any counter terrorism operational concept is to co-ordinate an operation with an integrated approach. Bearing this in mind, this study includes an assessment of the counterterrorism methodologies of various agencies responsible for counter terrorism within South Africa, with SAPS being the focal point. To establish the most effective counter terrorism strategy applicable to the South African context, this study considers a comparative analysis of counter terrorism strategies adopted within specified developed (Russia, US and UK) and developing countries (India and Algeria) as well as a conceptual analysis of relevant policing mechanisms that are currently considered as appropriate mechanisms to counter terrorism within specified countries. The synopsis of best-case practices of counter terrorism in developed and developing countries as well as the relevant literature on policing mechanism are then synthesized and interrogated into conceptualising an effective policing mechanism to counter terrorism in South Africa. Keywords: Terrorism, Counter Terrorism, Policing, Mechanisms, South African Police Services (SAPS). iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2. RESEARCH QUESTION..................................................................................................................... 2 1.3. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................. 2 1.3.1. AIM................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.3.2. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4. VALUE OF RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................... 2 1.5.1. RESEARCH APPROACH AND DESIGN .................................................................................................. 3 1.5.2. TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLING ............................................................................................... 3 1.5.2.1. Operationalising the data sampling process............................................................................ 3 1.5.3. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION........................................................................................................ 4 1.5.4. DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................... 4 1.5.5. METHODS USED TO ENSURE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY.................................................................. 5 1.6. RESEARCH STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................. 5 1.7. DE-LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................6 1.7.1. GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARY ............................................................................................................. 7 1.7.2. TIME FRAME..................................................................................................................................... 7 1.7.3. DEFINITIONAL CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................. 7 1.7.3.1. Defining Terrorism .................................................................................................................. 8 1.7.3.2. Defining Counter terrorism.....................................................................................................10 1.7.3.3. Policing...................................................................................................................................11 1.8. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................................12 1.9. SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................12 CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF TERRORISM....................................................................................13 2.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................13 2.2. CURRENT GLOBAL TRENDS OF TERRORISM .........................................................................13 2.2.1. DEFINING TRENDS OF TERRORIST ACTIVITY .....................................................................................13 2.2.2. CURRENT PATTERNS OF TERRORISM ................................................................................................15 2.3. TYPOLOGIES OF TERRORISM......................................................................................................16 2.3.1. DEFINING AND CONCEPTUALISING TERRORISM TYPOLOGIES ...........................................................17 2.3.2. SUBSET OF TERRORIST TYPOLOGIES.................................................................................................18 2.3.2.1. Political Terrorism..................................................................................................................18 2.3.2.2. Crime-related terrorism..........................................................................................................26 2.3.2.3 Pathological terrorism.............................................................................................................28 2.3.3. GEOGRAPHIC SPECIFICATIONS OF TERRORISM .................................................................................29 2.3.3.1. International acts of terrorism................................................................................................29