From Formal to Non–Formal From Formal to Non–Formal: Education, Learning and Knowledge Edited by Igor Ž. Žagar and Polona Kelava From Formal to Non–Formal: Education, Learning and Knowledge, Edited by Igor Ž. Žagar and Polona Kelava This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Igor Ž. Žagar, Polona Kelava and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5910-9, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5910-3 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ............................................................................................. vii Introduction ................................................................................................ ix Igor Ž. Žagar and Polona Kelava Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Selected Aspects of Non–Formal Education in Ancient Greece, Middle Ages and the Reformation Tadej Vidmar Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 23 The Informal Acquisition of Knowledge Drago B. Rotar Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 49 Professional Accountability and Personal Responsibility in Non–Formal Adult Education Tihomir Žiljak Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 73 The Constitution of the European Intellectual and Anti–Intellectualism in Relation to Formally and Non–Formally Acquired Knowledge Taja Kramberger Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 103 In–between Learning: Exposing Learning in Family Transitions Nives Ličen Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 131 Non–Formal and Informal Learning in the Community: A Case Study in the Northern Algarve (Portugal) António Fragoso vi Table of Contents Chapter Seven .......................................................................................... 149 The Importance of Teachers’ Professional Excellence in Non–Formal Education Petra Javrh Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 171 Validation of Non–Formal and Informal Learning: International Comparison Marko Radovan Chapter Nine ............................................................................................ 191 Qualifications Frameworks and Learning Outcomes as Supporters of Validation of Non–Formal and Informal Learning Klara Skubic Ermenc Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 215 (Recognition of) Non–Formal Learning: Beyond Formal Education? Polona Kelava Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 247 University Careers Centres: Spaces of Non–Formal Learning for Students Sabina Žnidaršič Žagar Contributors ............................................................................................. 271 Editors ..................................................................................................... 275 Index ........................................................................................................ 277 LIST OF TABLES Table 3–1 Six normative models of administrative justice ........................ 60 Table 3–2 Components of responsibility and their specifications in the literature ........................................................................................... 61 Table 4–1 Characteristic figures of anti–intellectualism at the time of Dreyfus affair ........................................................................................ 82 Table 5–1 Taxonomy of family learning in terms of existential themes and types of knowledge / Taxonomic groups, Result of learning (accumulation and transformation) .......................................................... 122 Table 7–1 Importance of various listed factors for changes cited by respondents as a consequence of non–formal learning ....................... 154 Table 8–1 EU countries in terms of degree of development of the system of validation of non–formal and informal learning .................................. 175 Table 8–2 Entrance requirements by ISCED level and countries, % ...... 178 Table 8–3 Accreditation of prior learning (APL) and prior experiential learning (APEL) by ISCED level and country, % ................................... 180 Table 9–1 Learning outcomes descriptors (SQF) .................................... 208 Table 9–2 Knowledge, skills and competences in Level 3 and Level 4 of Slovenian Qualifications Framework .................................................. 209 INTRODUCTION IGOR Ž. ŽAGAR AND POLONA KELAVA Non–formal learning? Non–formal education? Non–formal (non– formally acquired) knowledge? The authors of the monograph From Formal to Non–Formal: Education, Learning and Knowledge are anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, political scientists, education scientists and historians of education, and therefore the subject covered is a broad one whose contents reach into fields that at first glance appear to be very distant from each other. It is precisely this diversity of approaches that offers the best promise of new findings regarding non–formal learning, education and knowledge and that represents a fruitful basis for further reflection on these topics. Generally speaking, we define learning as "a process by which an individual assimilates information, ideas and values and thus acquires knowledge, know–how, skills and/or competences. Learning occurs through personal reflection, reconstruction and social interaction. Learning may take place in formal, non–formal or informal settings." (Terminology… 2008, 111; source: Cedefop, 2004; European Commission, 2006a). Knowledge, as one of the results of learning, may be defined in the most general terms as: "The outcome of the assimilation of information through learning. Knowledge is the body of facts, principles, theories and practices that is related to a field of study or work." (Terminology… 2008, 105; source: Cedefop 2004; European Commission 2006a). But is knowledge really simple to define? (cf. Sosa 1970) How are the principles and theories of knowledge and about knowledge developed? Is it possible that formal education is sufficient to construct something as complex as knowledge? If it is true that learning may be divided into formal, non–formal and informal learning depending on the circumstances in which it takes place, this cannot be said of knowledge. x Introduction Knowledge cannot be divided and it is difficult or impossible to break it down in terms of its origin. To a certain extent we can define the context in which knowledge is produced, which may be formal, non–formal or informal,1 but knowledge as a product of a combination of all types and circumstances of learning cannot be artificially divided, since it is stored in the individual as an indivisible whole, which, though it may consist of several components, nevertheless remains indivisible. Non–formal learning – the principal subject of this monograph – is just one of the processes that produce knowledge (if it is even possible to isolate it). We recognise non–formal learning in a wide variety of forms, formats and contexts, and it takes different appearances; this is also the subject of the present monograph, in which the following question is asked: are the outcomes of non–formal learning equivalent to, subordinate to or perhaps even superior to the outcomes of formal learning? Thinking about knowledge and learning, and in particular about non– formal learning, raises many questions and prompts us to re–examine these concepts. Is knowledge always an advantage? What is the value of knowledge? Can knowledge also represent an obstacle to the individual? Can one have too much knowledge? Knowledge acquired by non–formal routes can be unsuitable in terms of content and may even hinder the individual on the path to desired (employment–related) positions and (social) status. Can knowledge that is acquired non–formally be a disadvantage for the individual? Knowledge does not always fit into the framework of the present time and does not always coincide with direct or broader circumstances. Can there be a moment in which we possess certain knowledge but society is not ready for it? History tells us of many (too many?) such moments. The present monograph will show that such unexpected, sometimes surprising and unpleasant situations and destinies are not only the domain of the past. Knowledge acquired by a non–formal route can become the motive power of personal and personality development, and it can become a driving force in the development of society. "Non–formal" knowledge can be the basis for "formal" knowledge. Or vice versa. Non–formal knowledge can be a trigger of development. The non–formal learning of some (nursery school teachers, school teachers, university professors, researchers) can lay the foundations for