Social Inequality and the Body: Diet, activity, and health differences in a prehistoric Muisca population (Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia, AD 1000-1400) By Melanie Jayne Miller A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Associate Professor Sabrina C. Agarwal, Chair Professor Christine Hastorf Professor Rosemary Joyce Professor Todd Dawson Fall 2016 Social Inequality and the Body: Diet, activity, and health differences in a prehistoric Muisca population (Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia, AD 1000-1400) Copyright Ó 2016 by Melanie Jayne Miller Abstract Social Inequality and the Body: Diet, activity, and health differences in a prehistoric Muisca population (Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia, AD 1000-1400) By Melanie Jayne Miller Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology University of California, Berkeley Associate Professor Sabrina C. Agarwal, Chair This project uses multiple methods to explore how the biosocial variables of age, sex, and status intersect with social inequalities in a prehistoric Colombian population. The archaeological site of Tibanica in the Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia (AD 1000-1400) is an ideal place to examine the biocultural aspects of intersectionality, as it is a settlement of a complex chiefdom society. Inequality may be tied to age groups, differences between the sexes, or between those who are archaeologically recognized as higher/lower status based on mortuary practices. This project studies three loci where identities and inequality may be expressed and evidenced in the body: food consumption patterns, physical labor, and skeletal health. Human skeletons present the opportunity to study how these variables that are both biologically real and socially constituted, may relate to unequal power access within any society. 199 human skeletons were studied using stable isotope analysis (d13C, d15N) of tooth and bone samples (n=199) to reconstruct individual dietary histories, cross-sectional geometry analysis of femur (n=63) and humerus (n=33) bones to study human activity patterns, and bone remodeling in the metacarpal to examine overall bone loss and health (n=75). Dietary and activity data indicate significant differences between women and men over the lifetime, suggesting that different spheres of identity and activities were delineated by sex and age. Stable isotope data show differential access to particular foods, with both sexes consuming significant amounts of maize, but females consumed less maize and more C3-type foods than males. Cross-sectional geometry data revealed that male work emphasized lower body strength, probably related to agricultural work, while female activities required a strong upper body, likely related to food preparation and childcare activities. Skeletal health data indicate that in older age both women and men lost cortical bone in the hand, but women were more severely affected earlier in life, possibly due to skeletal responses to pregnancy and/or lactation. While historical and archaeological research of the Muisca has focused on the importance of social rank within a hierarchical chiefdom society, this dissertation suggests that a very salient aspect of everyday experience for the Muisca may have begun with social difference of another kind: between the sexes. These results demonstrate the capacity for bioarchaeological studies to provide unique data that can reveal complex social relationships that may not be observed through other lines of evidence, challenging assumptions about ancient peoples, and directing us to new lines of inquiry. 1 Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables………………………………………………………………...……iii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………..…….vi Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1 Embodiment and Inequality……………………………………………………………….2 Food Practices and Stable Isotope Analysis…………………………………….………...5 Physical Activity and Cross-Sectional Geometry Analysis……………………………….8 Skeletal Health and Metacarpal Radiogrammetry…………………………………...…..10 Chapter Summaries………………………………………………………………...…….11 Chapter 2: The Muisca……………………………………………………………………...….12 Previous Research on the Muisca………………………………………………………..14 Archaeological Studies of Tibanica ………………………………………..……………17 Chapter 3: Diet over the Life-course: Gender- and age-related differences within a Muisca community ………………………………………………………….………..27 Introduction………………………………………………….………….………………..27 Muisca Foodways………………………………………………………………………..29 Background: Stable Isotope Analysis for Dietary Reconstruction…………………...….30 Materials and Methods: Plants: Modern Reference Collection……………………….....33 Materials and Methods: Skeletal Samples……………………………………………….33 Results and Discussion…………………………………………………………………..36 Prehistoric Food Isotopes: Faunal Results……………………………………………….36 Prehistoric Food Isotopes: Floral Results……………………………………………..…40 Overall Adulthood Diet……………………………………………………………….….42 Between Burial Groups…………………………………………………………………..45 Status…………………………………………………………………………………..…45 Sex………………………………………………………………………………….…….47 Age…………………………………………………………………………………….…53 Childhood Diet…………………………………………………………………………...57 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………....60 Chapter 4: Sex- and Age-Related Patterns in Physical Activity: Cross-sectional geometry data from femurs and humerii……………………………………..…….…63 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………63 Materials and Methods…………………………………………………………….……..66 Results……………………………………………………………………………………68 Results: Femur………………………………………………………………………...…68 Results: Humerus………………………………………………………………………...73 Discussion: Femur……………………………………………………………………….79 Discussion: Humerus…………………………………………………………………….84 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………87 i Chapter 5: Bone Maintenance and Loss in a Muisca Population: The effects of sex and age ………………………………………………………………………...……90 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..……..90 Previous Studies……………………………………………………………….………....91 Materials and Methods………………………………………………………………..….94 Results………………………………………………………………………………..…..96 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………....102 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………..……107 Chapter 6: Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….…108 References……………………………………………………………………………………...114 Appendix A: Modern Colombian plant samples analyzed for stable isotope data………..147 Appendix B: All Tibanica bone stable isotope data (adulthood diet)……………………...151 Appendix C: All Tibanica stable isotope data from teeth (childhood diet)………………..157 ii Figures Figure 2.1 Map of Northern South America with detailed inset of important Muisca archaeological sites located within the Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia…………...12 Figure 2.2 Spatial distribution of burials from the archaeological excavation of Tibanica…………………………………………………………………………..18 Figure 2.3 Excavation photographs showing post-holes arranged in circles indicating presence of structures. ……………………………………………………………18 Figure 2.4 Calibrated 14C dates from 16 Tibanica skeletal samples indicating the site was continuously occupied from approximately AD 1000-1400……….....…….20 Figure 2.5 Calibrated 14C dates for Tibanica organized by burial grouping………………...21 Figure 2.6 Examples of durable grave goods (ceramic pottery and golden objects) found with Tibanica burials…………………………………….………………..22 Figure 3.1 Bone collagen d13C and d15N data for Tibanica faunal samples…………………38 Figure 3.2 Bone apatite d13C and bone collagen d13C for Tibanica faunal samples (comparing total dietary carbon to carbon from protein sources)….....………….39 Figure 3.3 Modern plant samples d13C and d15N data. Plants were collected from a farm in Tequendama, Colombia near the Tibanica archaeological site……....……….41 Figure 3.4 Tibanica bone collagen d13C and d15N data (n=168)……………………………42 Figure 3.5 Bone apatite d13C and bone collagen d13C for Tibanica samples, comparing total dietary carbon to carbon from protein sources, n=120 individuals……...…44 Figure 3.6 Tibanica social status is plotted with bone collagen d13C and d15N data (n=168)……………………………………………………………………...46 Figure 3.7 Bone apatite d13C and bone collagen d13C for Tibanica samples with individuals of high social status (n=24) and individuals without burial goods (n=96)……………………………………………………………………..47 Figure 3.8 Tibanica bone collagen d13C and d15N data (n=168) are plotted with the variable of sex: females (n=68), males (n=82) and individuals who were ambiguous or indeterminate (n=18)………………………………………..48 Figure 3.9 Bone apatite d13C and bone collagen d13C for Tibanica samples with females (n=45), males (n=77), and ambiguous or indeterminate individuals (n=19)………………………………………………………………..49 Figure 3.10 Bone apatite d13C and bone collagen d13C for Tibanica samples with females (n=45), males (n=77), and ambiguous/indeterminate individuals (n=19)…….…51 Figure 3.11 Bone collagen d13C plotted by sex and age……………………………………...54 Figure 3.12 Bone apatite d13C plotted by sex and age………………………………………..54 Figure 3.13 Bone collagen d15N plotted by sex and age……………………………………...55 Figure 3.14 Tooth dentin collagen d13C and d15N data……………………………………….57 Figure 3.15 Tooth enamel d13C and tooth dentin collagen d13C for Tibanica childhood diet……………………………………………………………….……………….58 Figure 3.16a Tooth enamel d13C data plotted by sex…………………………………………..59 Figure 3.16b Tooth dentin collagen d13C data plotted by sex………………………………….59 Figure 3.17 Tooth dentin collagen d15N plotted by sex………………………………………60 Figure 4.1 Stature and body mass estimates for Tibanica males and females………………68