Liberalism and Multiculturalism: Heterosexist Injustices within Minorities Luís Carlos Rodrigues PhD University of York School of Politics, Economics and Philosophy January 2014 Abstract My key question is whether granting rights to minority cultural groups can undermine the interests of lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals (LGBs) within those groups. Put differently, this thesis is an investigation about whether the interests of LGBs within minorities are damaged by granting rights to minority cultural groups. I argue that LGBs have the following interests; in family life, sexual freedom, basic civil and political rights, participation in cultural and political life, bodily and psychological integrity, employment equality and equal access to welfare. In order to answer to this question, I engage with the contemporary political philosophy of multiculturalism and I approach the research by critically analysing five different accounts, which can be categorised as: multicultural citizenship, liberal feminism, negative universalism, deliberation and dialogue, and joint governance. My contribution to the debate is by making a variety of critical and positive claims. I make critical claims about the approaches taken by some authors by affirming that they may not fully protect LGBs within minorities from heterosexism. I make positive claims by suggesting innovative policy alternatives for tackling heterosexism within minorities. Three of the positive claims stand out. First, in order to tackle heterosexism it is important to eliminate stereotypes about LGBs. Second, it is possible to have a set of criteria in favour of group rights that does not imply the reinforcement and/or the facilitation of heterosexism within minorities. Third, the oppression of LGBs within minorities is not the logical extension of engaging in multicultural policies. These claims lead me to defend a model that combines aspects of associative and deliberative democracy. I defend that this model deals adequately with the potential threats of granting rights to cultural groups because it has a variety of mechanisms to prevent and tackle heterosexism. 1 List of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 1 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ 5 Author’s Declaration ......................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................................................... 8 1.1 – Terminology for Sexuality ............................................................................................... 8 1.2 – What is a Minority Cultural Group? ........................................................................... 11 1.3 – The Problem Discussed in this Thesis ....................................................................... 13 1.4 – Outline of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 28 Chapter 2 – Multicultural Citizenship ........................................................................................ 31 2.1 – Taylor’s Normative and Semiotic Conception of Culture ................................... 32 2.2 – Two forms of Recognition: Intimate and Public .................................................... 34 2.3 – Procedural and Non–procedural Liberalism ............................................................ 37 2.4 – Recognition and the Status of LGBs within Minorities ....................................... 40 2.5 – Fundamental Rights, Federalism and the Rights of LGBs within Minorities ............................................................................................................................................................ 44 2.6 – Kymlicka’s Tripartite Typology of Diversity .......................................................... 47 2.7 – Freedom, Equality and Liberal Multicultural Citizenship ................................... 53 2.8 – External Protections, Internal Restrictions and the Limits of Toleration ....... 59 2.9 – Challenging the Distinction Between Internal Restrictions and External Protections ...................................................................................................................................... 63 2.10– Challenging Kymlicka’s Idea of Toleration and the Prioritisation of National Minorities ........................................................................................................................................ 71 2.11. Conclusion: Is Multicultural Citizenship Problematic for the Rights of LGBs within Minorities? ........................................................................................................................ 77 Chapter 3 – Two Forms of Liberal Feminism ......................................................................... 80 3.1 – Susan Okin’s Theory of being ‘Fully Human’, Gendered Cultures and Sexual Orientation ...................................................................................................................................... 81 3.2 – Liberal Feminism, Gender–Free Society and Group Rights ............................... 91 3.3 – Stereotypes, Social Meaning, Context and Agency .............................................. 95 3.4 – Fraser’s Universalistic Theory of Justice: Institutionalisation, Redistribution, Recognition and Representation .......................................................................................... 107 3.5 – Heterosexism, LGBs within Minorities and Policy Solutions ........................ 113 3.6 – Assessing Fraser’s Theory .......................................................................................... 117 3.7 – Conclusion: Stereotypes, Transformation and Group Rights .......................... 120 Chapter 4 – Negative Universalism ......................................................................................... 122 2 4.1 – Barry’s Philosophical Anthropology and Liberal Egalitarianism .................. 123 4.2 – LGBs’ Rights, Culture and Group Rights .............................................................. 126 4.3 – The Internal Structure of Cultural Minorities and a Tripartite Typology of Costs .............................................................................................................................................. 131 4.4 – When are Group Rights Justified? ............................................................................ 137 4.5 – External Costs and the Rhetoric of Costs ............................................................... 142 4.6 – Fairness, Feasibility and Policy Suggestions for the Prevention and Alleviation of Intrinsic and Associative Costs ................................................................ 145 4.7 – Kukathas’ Philosophical Anthropology: Human Nature and the Universal Human Interest in Conscience .............................................................................................. 150 4.8 – Kukathas’ Libertarian Version of Freedom of Association ............................. 154 4.9 – Heterosexism, Place to Exit and Freedom of Conscience ................................ 159 4.10 – A Viable Alternative for LGBs and the Capacity to Enter ............................ 163 4.11 – Conclusion: Does Granting Associational Freedoms to Minority Groups have Damaging Consequences for LGBs within Minorities? .................................... 168 Chapter 5 – Deliberation and Dialogue .................................................................................. 170 5.1 – The Nature of Disputes Within Cultural Minorities ........................................... 171 5.2 – Deveaux’s Model of Deliberative Democracy ..................................................... 174 5.3– The Scope of Deveaux’s Principles of Deliberation ........................................... 182 5.4 – Why Deliberation is Important for LGBs within Minorities ........................... 184 5.5 – Criticisms to Deliberation and Response ............................................................... 191 5.6 – Parekh on Human Nature, Culture and Sexual Orientation ............................. 196 5.7– Operative Public Values and Intercultural Dialogue ........................................... 200 5.8– Practical Questions about Parekh’s Version of Intercultural Dialogue ......... 211 5.9 – Conclusion – What can Deliberation Achieve with Respect to Heterosexist Injustices within Minorities? ................................................................................................. 216 Chapter 6 − Joint Governance ................................................................................................... 217 6.1 – Shachar’s Legal Analysis of the Paradox of Multicultural Vulnerability in Nomoi Communities ................................................................................................................ 218 6.2 – Transformative Accommodation .............................................................................. 222 6.3 – Assessing the Principles of Transformative Accommodation ........................ 227 6.4 – The Collapse of the Division of Jurisdictions into Sub–matters and the Lack of Deliberation ..........................................................................................................................