Justus-von-Liebig-Universität Gießen Fachbereich 07: Mathematik und Informatik, Physik, Geographie Institut für Geographie State-building in Afghanistan: The role of institutional capacity. vorgelegt von Dipl. Geograph Sardar M. Kohistani Dissertation Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. rer.nat im Fachbereich Geographie Gießen, Oktober 2009 Dedication To my father Acknowledgements It is my pleasure to express my thanks to my advisors Prof. Dr. Andreas Dittmann and Prof. Dr. Eckart Ehlers for their time and for their kind cooperation. I would like to express my gratitude for Christine Issa who was very supportive throughout the period of my study in Bonn and then in Giessen. She also benefited me in reading and commenting this dissertation. I wish to express my gratitude to Bernd Goecke and Nadine Vorbeck for preparing the maps as well as Dr. Frank Schuessler for reading the paper and commenting on it, and Anika Merschhemke who proofread the dissertation. My thanks also go to Mr. Klaus Haker Mrs. Erika Haker who generously supported me during my stay in Germany especially in the final stages of preparing this dissertation. There are many people in Kabul and in Germany who I cannot name all and were so kind and supportive. I wish to thank them all. The Ministry of Higher Education as well as the Chancellor of Kabul University and the DAAD gave me the opportunity to come to Germany and to study and develop my knowledge. To all of them I owe this opportunity and to them I wish to express my gratitude. My family endured my absence for the whole time especially my mother and my sister. My brother in Germany was also very supportive. I wish to express my love and my appreciation to them. Sardar Mohammad Kohistani Giessen December 2009 1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 7 1.1 State-Building in Afghanistan............................................................................. 7 1.2 State-Building or Nation-Building: Terminology............................................. 15 1.3 The Two Ends of a State: State’s Effective Function as Determinant of its Ideal Form........................................................................................................ 23 1.4 The Role of Institutional Capacity.................................................................... 25 1.5 Research Question and Hypothesis................................................................... 27 1.6 Methodology: How to Focus on State-Building in Afghanistan - Status of Research............................................................................................................ 31 2 Afghanistan's Diversity as a Determinants of State-Building Processes ........... 34 2.1 Geopolitical Determinants of Diversity............................................................ 34 2.1.1 The Geostrategical Implications of the Region ............................................ 34 2.1.2 The Impact of Neighbours and Borders........................................................ 36 2.2 Historical Determinant of Diversity: The Changes in Ruling Systems from 1747 to 1973 and Their Influence on Institution .............................................. 41 2.2.1 The Role of Mosques as Socio-Religious Institutions and Their Influence on Political Power.............................................................................................. 44 2.2.2 The Emergence of Dynasties and the Role of Tribal Systems: From Unification of Tribes to the Beginning of Their Rivalry .............................. 49 2.2.3 The Rise of Intelligentsia (Roshanfekran): First Steps in Building Institutions and Capacities ............................................................................................... 64 2.2.4 The Collapse of Modernism Effected by Religion Elites ............................. 70 2.2.5 The Re-establishing of Monarchy on the Basis of Tribal Authority and the Rise of Intellectual Elites: The End of the Great Game and the Beginning of the Cold War................................................................................................. 77 2.2.6 The Influence of Intellectuals on the Introduction of Democracy................ 81 2.2.7 The Cold War and its Impact on Destabilizing the Geostrategic Balance of Afghanistan between the East and the West Blocks..................................... 84 2.2.8 The Creation of Pashtunistan Issue and its Continuous Impact in Destabilizing the Regional Geostrategic Balance......................................... 89 2.2.9 The Experimental Democracy in 1963-1973................................................ 95 1 2.2.10 The Establishment of Political Parties in Secret and Their Activities among the Intellectuals ............................................................................. 99 2.2.11 Instable Changing Governments and the Break up of Social Control.... 102 2.3 Ethno-linguistic and Socio-religious Diversity............................................... 110 2.3.1 Ethno-linguistic Diversity........................................................................... 110 2.3.2 How to Create Unity in Diversity: The Challenges of Ethno-linguistic Diversity in Building Nation and National Institutions .............................. 120 2.3.3 Religious Diversity..................................................................................... 131 2.3.4 Population Distribution............................................................................... 134 2.3.5 Diversities of Settlement Structures and Social Groups............................. 137 3 Persistence and Sustainability of Traditional Organizations and Ruling Systems................................................................................................................... 143 3.1 Governmental Institutions (Constitution) ....................................................... 143 3.2 Religious Institutions (Shariah) ...................................................................... 147 3.3 Tribal Institutions (Tribalism)......................................................................... 154 4 War and Civil War as Major Determinants of State-Building in Afghanistan............................................................................................................ 158 4.1 The Fall of the Monarchy and the Proclamation of the Republic by Daoud .. 159 4.2 Soviet Invasion: The PDPA Takes over Power .............................................. 167 4.2.1 Implementing Fundamental Marxist Reform in a Traditional Society....... 171 4.2.2 The Impact of the Soviet Military Invasion on the State and its Institutions................................................................................................... 178 4.2.3 The Formation of Mujahidin Resistance Forces in Pakistan and Iran........ 180 4.2.4 The War 1979-1992.................................................................................... 184 4.2.5 The Withdrawal of Soviet Troops and Pakistan’s Geostrategic Ambitions in Afghanistan................................................................................................. 189 4.2.6 The Disintegration of the PDPA’s Political System and its Institutions .... 195 4.3 The Mujahidin Government 1992-2001 ......................................................... 197 4.3.1 The Regional Division of the Country among Rival Groups ..................... 198 4.3.2 Internal Factors of the Conflict................................................................... 205 4.3.3 External Factors of the Conflict: The ‘New Great Game’.......................... 208 4.3.4 The Government Consolidates its Power in Kabul..................................... 211 2 4.3.5 Taliban: Pakistan’s “Creeping Invasion”.................................................... 212 4.3.6 The Multinational Composition of the Taliban .......................................... 214 4.3.7 Strategy of the Taliban................................................................................ 216 4.3.8 The US Invasion: ‘The War on Terror’ ...................................................... 223 4.3.9 The Fall of the Taliban................................................................................ 226 4.3.10 A New Era in the State-Building Process............................................... 227 5 The Role of Diversities in State-Building Processes........................................... 233 5.1 Divisive Forces among the Population ........................................................... 236 5.1.1 Analysis of Separating and Integrating Factors in Social Groups .............. 236 5.1.2 The Unclear Idea of Nationality in Afghanistan: What Does Nationality Mean in Afghanistan?................................................................................. 248 5.2 The Role of National Institutions in State-Building ....................................... 253 5.2.1 The Current Structure of ‘National’ Institutions......................................... 255 5.2.2 The Determining Role of Qawm in Creating Institution ............................ 260 5.2.3 Identification and Stratification of Main Internal and External Players..... 265 5.3 Poor Institutional Capacity and the Insufficient Number of ‘Capable Staff’ . 274 5.3.1 The Weak Security and Justice Sector........................................................ 274 5.3.2 The Insufficiently Qualified Administrative Staff...................................... 280 5.3.3 The Challenge of Brain-Drain