London School of Economics and Political Science It’s A Man’s Game: English Football and Socio-Cultural Change Ian S. Andrews Thesis submitted to the Department of Social Policy, the London School of Economics and Political Science for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, January 2013 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotations from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior consent of the author. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 75,035 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Transformat Ltd. 1 Abstract This thesis sets out to explain the limited representation of English players in Premiership football. As a nation, England appears to be producing an insufficient number of players who are believed capable of playing at the highest level of the game. Available data has suggested that less than 40% of footballers who started Premier League games in recent years are English. Why then are foreign players preferred to their English counterparts? One explanation to this question may be found in the historical development of the English game. As well as being a game, football is a form of cultural expression. From the earliest forms of ‘folk football’ played in the fourteenth century, a range of social forces have either independently or inter-dependently helped to promote a game largely based upon fitness and physicality. However, during the twentieth century, the football being played in other countries began to improve markedly; football began to shift from a traditional to a technical game. Following the formation of the Premier League in 1992, Premiership clubs began to recruit foreign players in increasing numbers, many of whom possessed the technical ability required to compete at the highest levels of the game. Much of English football, in contrast, has continued to promote a manly and physical game rather than a game based upon the development of technical skills. Unless a greater number of English players acquire a similar level of technical ability then the influx of foreign players is likely to continue. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor Eric Dunning for all the time and support he has given me over the last few years. Without his guidance this thesis would not have been concluded. I would also like to thank Professor Anne West, Professor Julian Le Grand, and Professor Tim Newburn at the Social Policy Department of the London School of Economics for their considerable support during my time as a doctoral student. I would also like to thank both Professor George Gaskell and Dr Julian Fulbrook for their support and encouragement. May I say how grateful I am to the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) for awarding me a research scholarship to conduct this research. I am also extremely grateful to the Football Association for giving me their continued support. In particular, the help and advice I received from Craig Simmons was invaluable. Similarly, I greatly appreciate the help and guidance given to me by the Professional Footballers’ Association, the Premier League, and the Football League. Likewise, without the help of various managers, coaches, players and football supporters alike the research would not have been possible. I am exceptionally grateful to you all. I would also like to thank my friends and family for their support along a profoundly interesting but difficult journey. In particular, I would like to thank Chris Payne, Markus Ketola, Paul Mathews and Paul Stephens for their thoughts and observations. Many thanks also to my wife Valerie for her patience and encouragement throughout. I dedicate this work to the memory of Stephen Schenk, Lecturer in Sociology at Bedford College, Regents’ Park, University of London. He is greatly missed, both as a friend and as an exceptional academic. 3 Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 9 1.1 Research Questions .................................................................... 12 1.2 Historical Perspective ................................................................ 12 1.3 A Study of ‘English’ rather than ‘British’ Football ................... 15 1.4 Alternative Explanations ............................................................ 16 1.5 A Cultural Vacuum .................................................................... 22 1.6 Chapter Outline .......................................................................... 23 Chapter 2 Methods ............................................................................................ 30 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 30 2.2 A Theoretical Framework .......................................................... 30 2.3 The Work of C Wright Mills ..................................................... 31 2.4 The Contribution of Max Weber................................................ 33 2.5 Thomas Kuhn ............................................................................. 35 2.6 Qualitative Research .................................................................. 37 2.7 Archival Material ....................................................................... 38 2.8 Limitations of the Research ....................................................... 38 2.9 Field Work ................................................................................. 39 2.10 Research Conducted at the National Level of English Football ...................................................................................... 40 2.11 The Football Association ........................................................... 40 2.12 The Premier League ................................................................... 40 2.13 The Football League .................................................................. 41 2.14 The Professional Footballers’ Association ................................ 41 2.15 Research Conducted at Club level ............................................. 41 2.16 Research Conducted at Player Level ......................................... 43 2.17 The Fan Base ............................................................................. 43 2.18 Conclusion ................................................................................. 43 Chapter 3 The Early Development of English Football ................................ 45 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 45 3.2 A ‘Design for Living’ ................................................................ 45 3.3 The Origins of Football .............................................................. 47 4 3.4 The Early Forms of ‘Folk Football’ ........................................... 49 3.5 Popular Appeal and Regulatory Constraint ............................... 55 3.6 Industrialisation, Regulation and Control .................................. 58 3.7 Conclusion ................................................................................. 61 Chapter 4 Manliness and the rise of ‘muscular Christianity’ ...................... 63 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 63 4.2 The Resurgence of Public School Football ................................ 63 4.3 The Tenacity of Popular Culture ............................................... 68 4.4 The Differentiation of Rugby Football and Association Football ...................................................................................... 71 4.5 Manliness in Transition ............................................................. 72 4.6 The Evolution of ‘muscular Christianity’ .................................. 77 4.7 The ‘muscular Christianity’ of Thomas Hughes and Charles Kingsley ..................................................................................... 79 4.8 ‘Muscular Christianity’ and Public School Football ................. 81 4.9 ‘Muscular Christianity’ and Cultural Integration ...................... 85 4.10 Conclusion ................................................................................. 91 Chapter 5 Football and the Legacy of Social Class........................................ 93 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 93 5.2 Football and the Working Class ................................................. 94 5.3 The Concept of Masculinity ...................................................... 98 5.4 The Development of Working Class Football ......................... 104 5.5 The Foundation of the Football League ................................... 108 5.6 The Professional Player ........................................................... 109 5.7 The ‘Scottish Professors’ ......................................................... 114 5.8 Conclusion ..............................................................................