CONSTRUCTING HIERARCHY THROUGH ENTITLEMENT: INEQUALITY IN LITHIC RESOURCE ACCESS AMONG THE ANCIENT MAYA OF BLUE CREEK, BELIZE A Dissertation by JASON WALLACE BARRETT Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2004 Major Subject: Anthropology CONSTRUCTING HIERARCHY THROUGH ENTITLEMENT: INEQUALITY IN LITHIC RESOURCE ACCESS AMONG THE ANCIENT MAYA OF BLUE CREEK, BELIZE A Dissertation by JASON WALLACE BARRETT Submitted to Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved as to style and content by: Harry J. Shafer David L. Carlson (Chair of Committee) (Head of Department) D. Bruce Dickson Thomas H. Guderjan (Member) (Member) Lori E. Wright Robert L. Coulson (Member) (Member) December 2004 Major Subject: Anthropology iii ABSTRACT Constructing Hierarchy through Entitlement: Inequality in Lithic Resource Access among the Ancient Maya of Blue Creek, Belize. (December 2004) Jason Wallace Barrett, B.A., Rhode Island College; M.A., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Harry J. Shafer This dissertation tests the theory that lithic raw materials were a strategic resource among the ancient Maya of Blue Creek, Belize that markedly influenced the development of socio-economic hierarchies at the site. Recent research has brought attention to the role of critical resource control as a mechanism contributing to the development of political economies among the ancient Maya. Such research has been primarily focused on the control of access to water and agricultural land. The examination of lithic raw materials as a critical economic resource is warranted as stone tools constituted a fundamental component of the ancient Maya economy. My research objectives include measuring raw material variability in the Blue Creek settlement zone and its immediate environs, assessing the amount of spatial and temporal variability present in the distribution of various raw materials, determining the degree to which proximity to a given resource influenced the relative level of its use, and testing whether differential resource access relates to variability in aggregate expressions of wealth. To meet these objectives, I examined 2136 formal stone tools and 24,944 pieces of debitage from excavations across the Blue Creek settlement zone, and I developed a lithic raw material type collection using natural outcrops. Significant spatial and temporal differences were observed in the use of various raw materials. Control of critical resources under conditions of scarcity is shown to have caused social stratification among the ancient Maya of Blue Creek. Initial disparities in use- right arrangements based on first occupancy rights produced substantial, accumulative iv inequality in economic capability and subsequent achievements. During the Early Classic period, these disproportionate allowances ultimately undermined the more egalitarian structure observed during the Preclassic. The Early Classic period at Blue Creek is characterized by increasing extravagance among the elites and increasing disenfranchisement throughout the hinterlands when compared to earlier periods. This suggests that elites at the site only became fully able to convert their resource monopolies into substantial gains in power, prestige, and wealth during the Classic period. v DEDICATION To Kim for unwavering support, steadfast belief, constant friendship, and always having more questions than I have answers. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this dissertation has been made possible through the efforts, interests, support, and guidance of a great many people. Many of these individuals may not realize the impact they have had on my research and in the final production of this work, and this I attribute to my own negligence. I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge some of the individuals whose contributions have left an indelible mark on this volume, and whom I regard as most responsible for my achievements. The members of my dissertation committee have been a source of continual assistance and insight. I am indebted to Dr. Harry J. Shafer for his unfailing support and encouragement. Harry’s enthusiasm and knowledge regarding the intricacies of lithic analysis have been inspirational throughout the course of my research. As chair of my dissertation committee, he has entrusted me with the intellectual freedom to pursue my diverse theoretical interests while always keeping me oriented toward a realistic goal. As a member of my committee, Dr. D. Bruce Dickson has provided endless guidance and support, and the theoretical orientation of this work owes much to his insight and influence. He has been a selfless mentor, a thoughtful critic, and a valued friend. Above all, Bruce has singularly ensured that this work has remained firmly predicated on sound scientific methods. I owe Dr. Thomas H. Guderjan a tremendous debt of gratitude for all that he has done for me over the last several years. In addition to bringing me onto the Blue Creek project and supplying me with every resource I required with which to conduct my research, he has been a constant source of information throughout the research and writing process. In the process of completing this dissertation, I have tried to justify his generosity and the unquestioned faith that he has shown in my abilities. Dr. Lori E. Wright has been a role model scholar. She has always provided poinient and thorough critiques and has challenged me in all endeavors to strive for the highest level of scholarship that I am capable of acheiving. I continue to be invigorated by her camaraderie as one of the only other Mayanists at Texas A&M University. vii Dr. Robert L. Coulson’s insights into the ecological character of landscapes and regions, as well as the impact of human actions within these systems, should be readily apparent in the text of this volume. His emphasis on the importance of environmental structure in both constraining and facilitating cultural action helped to shape the direction of my research, and has served as the cornerstone for this study. I am fortunate to have worked with such a strong core of colleagues during the course of my research at Blue Creek. Dr. John C. Lohse, the current director at Blue Creek, has been a valuable source of intellectual discourse and an unflappable force in keeping my research focused. Dr. Laura J. Kosakowski generously provided ceramic data critical to addressing chronological aspects of lithic resource exploitation within this study. Colleen Hanratty, Robert Lichtenstein, Sarah C. Clayton, and Antoine Giacommetti, all excavation supervisors on the Blue Creek project, have each been extraordinary friends and have lent their support to my endeavors without hesitation. As longtime staff members, Colleen and Bob have been particularly helpful in providing me with the contextual data pertinent to my research. The Blue Creek project is well endowed with a staff of artistic specialists, and I have been fortunate in being able to benefit from their skill and dedication. Bill Collins was remarkably generous in providing most of the artifact photographs included in this work. Bill Bowman and Jo Mincher each contributed numerous technical drawings of stone tools. Although few of the drawing have made it into the final work, I sincerely appreciate their generous efforts on my behalf. I would also like to express my gratitude to all the volunteers and field school students who assisted in my field excavations and laboratory analyses over that past four years. The contributions of Ira McDaniel and Gwyneth MacCubbin are particularly worthy of mention. Kim A. Cox has been a friend and supporter from the moment I joined the Blue Creek project. His knowledge of the project area, willingness to trek through the bush in search of raw material deposits, and uncanny ability to find the most obscure archaeological features has been instrumental in of much of my success. It was on viii Kim’s insistence that the Blue Creek project sought a lithicist, and for that, among many things, I am indebted. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the unending support and encouragement that my family has shown. I continue to be amazed by their generosity and hope that this work honors their faith in me. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..............................................................................................vi LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................xv LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................xx CHAPTER I LITHIC RESEARCH AT BLUE CREEK, BELIZE: AN INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................1 Research Problems and Objectives1 ......................................................1 Research Hypotheses.............................................................................4 Research Design and Procedures...........................................................6 Materials and Methods ..........................................................................8