Case Study Series Women in Peace and Transition Processes May 2017 Name of process Guatemala (1994–1999) Negotiations for a Firm and Lasting Peace1 Of the several peace initiatives organized since the 1980s aimed at Type of process • Peace-making ending Guatemala’s protracted civil war, the United Nations-mediated Outcome of process peace process of 1994–1996 proved the most inclusive. Organized • A final agreement was reached women’s groups were included in the Assembly of Civil Society, an but only partially implemented official consultation body mandated to bring recommendations to the due to the rejection of necessary formal (track one) negotiations between the Guatemalan government constitutional amendments by and a unified coalition of the four largest guerrilla movements, the referendum in 1999 Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity. • While the agreement brought a formal end to the armed conflict, it has not prevented The women’s organizations built a strong coalition in the Women’s high levels of violence and crime Sector of the Assembly, which enabled them to articulate joint positions Women’s inclusion and effectively bring their issues onto the negotiating agenda. The • Official consultations in parallel advocacy support of Luz Mendez, a woman delegate for the National to the UN-mediated peace Revolutionary Unity in the track one negotiations, was equally important negotiations in ensuring that provisions proposed by the women’s groups were Women’s influence High influence due to: included in the final agreement. • Strong coalition building in the Women’s Sector in the Assembly of Civil Society I. Background • Effective advocacy strategies to ensure the insertion of Approximately 60 percent of Guatemala’s population identifies with one numerous provisions in the final of the 22 different Maya ethnic groups.2 Poverty is particularly prevalent agreement among the Maya with 73 percent of Guatemala’s Maya population living below the poverty line.3 IPTI is an initiative of: 1 Case Study | Women in Peace and Transition Processes. Guatemala (1994–1999) Violence against Out of 187 countries, Guatemala ranks 128 on the Human Development Index and women is a major 119 on the Gender Inequality Index.4 Violence against women is a major problem in problem in Guatemala, Guatemalan society. Women are victims of 92 percent of cases of domestic violence5 which has the third and the country has the third highest rate of murders of women in the world. Between highest rate of 2007 and 2012 there were 9.1 murders per year for every 100,000 women.6 Insufficient murders of women in resources in the police and judicial system combined with social stigmatization of the world domestic violence victims leads to high levels of impunity of perpetrators.7 The conflict between the Guatemalan government and various guerrilla movements has its origins in the 1954 coup d’état, which was supported by the US Central Intelligence Agency. The overthrow of the democratically elected President Jacobo Arbenz marked the end of a decade of democratic experimentation. President Arbenz had initiated land reform programs, which were highly unpopular among wealthy landowners and powerful US investors, most notably the United Fruit Company. Motivated by Cold War policies towards Latin America, an anti-socialist military leadership friendly towards the US government and investors was installed. This resulted in the emergence of several guerrilla resistance movements.8 In 1960, violence In 1960, violence between the guerrillas and the government began in Guatemala City erupted between and surrounding regions to the east and south. Violence in the first stage of the civil the guerrillas and war was directed towards people who were part of, or otherwise associated with, the the government in guerrillas or the military government. The guerrillas carried out economic sabotage Guatemala City and as well as violent attacks on government installations in Guatemala City, as well as surrounding regions members of the government and individuals associated with it. At the same time, extreme right-wing, pro-government paramilitaries tortured and murdered people associated with the guerrilla movements.9 From the 1970s to the mid-1980s, the armed conflict escalated and spread to the highlands of Guatemala, an area mainly inhabited by Maya communities. At this point, military tactics shifted from selective targeting to systematic, widespread counterinsurgency. The Maya people, perceived by the government as affiliates of the guerrilla movement, were considered enemies of the state. The military carried out abductions, disappearances, torture, and extra-judicial killing of Mayans, who may or may not have been involved in the insurgency.10 During the same period, support grew for the four largest guerrilla groups, which included the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres), Revolutionary Organization of the Armed People (Organización Revolucionaria del Pueblo en Armas); Rebel Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes), and the Guatemalan Labor Party (Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo). At their height, these comprised an estimated 6,000 guerrilla soldiers and were supported by between 200,000 and 500,000 citizens.11 In 1982, the four guerrilla groups formed a coalition known as the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG). 2 Case Study | Women in Peace and Transition Processes. Guatemala (1994–1999) By the end of the war in 1996, an estimated 200,000 people had been killed or “disappeared,” a great majority of these among the Maya groups.12 Of the human rights violations committed throughout the conflict, the Commission on Historical Clarification found that up to 93 percent were perpetrated by the military and paramilitary groups; 3 percent by URNG; and 4 percent by other unidentified armed groups, civilians, and government officials.13 A quarter of the identified victims of these violations were women. Rape was commonly used as a tool of warfare, intended to degrade victims during torture or before assassination.14 The Guatemalan peace process was initiated in the mid-1980s by the Contadora Group, comprising Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico, and Panama. Using diplomacy, their objective was to resolve the violent conflicts in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, as well as the instability caused by the Nicaraguan civil war in Costa Rica and Honduras.15 In 1986, the countries reached a multi-lateral accord in the Esquipula I Declaration. Esquipula II followed in 1987, detailing steps to be taken towards the promotion of national reconciliation and democratization.16 The 1994 UN- In 1990, a region-wide push towards a peaceful solution to the Guatemalan civil war mediated peace led to negotiations in Oslo. This paved the way for talks in Mexico between URNG talks established a and the Guatemalan government,17 and rules and procedures for future negotiations negotiating agenda were drawn out in the 1991 Mexico Accord.18 In 1994, UN-mediated track one peace and the Assembly of negotiations between the Government of Guatemala and URNG began under the Civil Society Framework Accord for the Resumption of the Negotiations, which presented an agenda for the peace talks and established the Assembly of Civil Society. The Assembly of Civil Society was mandated to work in parallel with the UN- mediated peace negotiations by producing recommendations.19 In January 1995, these recommendations were handed over to the official track one negotiations. The Assembly subsequently began to work beyond its initial mandate, and carried out advocacy activities such as the publication of documents on the Guatemalan transition, including transparency in the 1995 election.20 As a result, the Government and URNG did not give the Assembly of Civil Society a formal role in the implementation phase of the peace agreement. The Assembly grew more politicized, lost influence, and dissolved after the signing of the peace agreement.21 An agreement was The UN-mediated peace talks ended on 28 December 1996, when the Government of signed in 1996, but Guatemala and URNG signed the Agreement for a Firm and Lasting Peace, and put the constitutional an end to the armed conflict. The agreement included stipulations on demobilization changes needed for and the reintegration of former guerrilla fighters into civilian society, as well as its implementation comprehensive socio-economic and democratic provisions such as fiscal, electoral, were rejected by and minority rights reforms.22 In order for the agreement to be implemented, referendum four categories of 50 amendments had to be made to the constitution. A national referendum on the proposed constitutional changes was held in 1999. The changes were rejected by 55 percent of voters23 in a vote with very low and uneven turnout:24 only 17 percent of the electorate voted and a high rate of abstentions was recorded in indigenous areas.25 Case Study | Women in Peace and Transition Processes. Guatemala (1994–1999) 3 Although levels of The lack of implementation of crucial elements of the agreement constrained its violence remain high overall impact. While the peace agreement brought an end to the armed conflict, in Guatemala, the extremely high levels of violence and organized crime continue. The country has agreement brought one of the highest homicide and, more specifically, femicide rates in the world.26 an end to the conflict Nonetheless, the formal inclusion of women’s organizations in the Assembly of Civil and paved the way for Society increased the momentum for women’s rights and gender equality in the more gender equality post-conflict civil society. This case study focuses on the influence of the Women’s Sector in the Assembly of Civil Society and the track one negotiations. Actors involved in the Process The official track one negotiations were conducted between the Guatemalan government and URNG, and were moderated by the United Nations mediator Jean Arnault. In addition to negotiations between the government and the URNG, civil society organizations were included through the establishment of an Assembly of Civil Society.