University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 6-1-2010 Maritime Terror: A Comparative Study of the Barbary Corsairs and Modern Somali Pirates Lauren M. Halton University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the International Relations Commons Recommended Citation Halton, Lauren M., "Maritime Terror: A Comparative Study of the Barbary Corsairs and Modern Somali Pirates" (2010). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 263. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/263 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. Maritime Terror: A Comparative Study of the Barbary Corsairs and Modern Somali Pirates A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in International Security by Lauren M. Halton June, 2010 Advisor: Karen A. Feste ©Copyright by Lauren M. Halton 2010 All Rights Reserved Author: Lauren M. Halton Title: Maritime Terror: A Comparative Study of the Barbary Corsairs and Modern Somali Pirates Advisor: Karen A. Feste Degree Date: June, 2010 ABSTRACT Maritime piracy off the Horn of Africa, although not a new security threat, has grown at an alarming rate in the twenty-first century. This study compares modern Somali piracy with the Barbary Corsairs problem of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to understand what policy responses might be most effective. The comparison focused on pirate characteristics and motives; targeted ships; attack frequency; hostage treatment; counter measures to combat piracy; and outcomes. Financial motivation, level of organization, and viciousness of attacks are all characteristics the Somali pirates and Barbary Corsairs share. They differ in that the Corsairs operated as part of a religious war and were culturally and politically different from current pirates, targeted different types of vessels, and had fleets that consisted of larger, traditional ships. The lessons learned from Barbary as well as these similarities and differences all contribute to formulating the most viable response to the threat of modern piracy. The failure of tribute payments and the diplomatic treaties that stipulated for these tribute payments to the Barbary leaders, the success of best safety practices, and the necessity for military action to counter piracy are all important lessons from the Barbary era that can be applied to the current problem of maritime crime. Military intervention on the high seas is the most viable solution because of the capabilities of the United States Navy that can directly address the threat of piracy. iii Table of Contents Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Literature Review.......................................................... 6 Chapter 2: The Barbary Corsairs .................................................. 32 Chapter 3: Somali Pirates ............................................................. 56 Chapter 4: Analysis ....................................................................... 77 Conclusion ................................................................................... 113 Bibliography.. .............................................................................. 119 iv Tables Table 1………………………………………………………………………58 v Introduction Piracy has plagued world commerce and global security for centuries. Despite being popularized in the Pirates of the Caribbean trilogy and the satirical cartoon series South Park, maritime piracy is dangerous, and a much larger concern than the entertainment media portrays. It disrupts shipping and commerce, and contributes to regional insecurity. A sudden increase in Somali piracy in 2008 captured news headlines, and brought to light the major threat to shipping off the Horn of Africa. The attempted seizure of the Maersk Alabama , and its American crew, on April 8, 2009 raised the following question: what can be done to successfully counter maritime piracy? In particular, is military intervention a viable option, and if so, how would it work? Thus far, piracy has proven to be a difficult threat to solve. Piracy stems from opportunity, economic desperation, and a lack of government institutions able to stop the crime. It threatens the safety of ships and crews, and impacts shipping costs, the global economy, and regional security. During the early part of the twenty-first century, the major geographic hotspot for piracy was in Southeast Asia around the Strait of Malacca. However, as anti-piracy best practices and littoral patrols began to take effect, incidences of piracy decreased in the region. The sheer size of the region off the Horn of Africa, combined with the lack of capable law enforcement institutions, makes applying the lessons from Southeast Asia to East Africa extremely difficult. It also makes an effective strategy to combat both the causes and symptoms of piracy exceptionally problematic. 1 This study will focus on the military response to maritime piracy. It will use a qualitative approach to explain why naval action is the most viable course of action to combat maritime piracy. A literature review will be performed to present the current United States policies on maritime piracy. These will be drawn from statements released by the Department of State, the 2005 National Strategy on Maritime Security, and the National Security Council’s Countering Piracy Off the Horn of Africa: Partnership & Action Plan. When piracy began to flare up in the Gulf of Aden, resources from Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150), tasked with conducting counter-terrorism operations, were diverted to deal with the new threat. Eventually, a new task force, CTF- 151, was created to deal specifically with the threat of piracy. The literature review will also explain why separate policies are needed to combat terrorism and piracy. Finally, the literature review will introduce alternative policies to combat piracy discussed in various journal articles, and explain the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches. A comparative case study, examining the United States experience with the Barbary corsairs and its current dealings with Somali pirates, will be conducted to address the research questions. It will introduce the background and describe the conflict of each case, and compare each based on the following criteria: geographic regions of activity, characteristics of the pirates, motivations for piracy, the targets, the nature and frequency of attacks, treatment of hostages, measures undertaken to combat piracy, and the outcomes. The criteria will illustrate how each of these factors contribute to piracy, how the outcomes were determined, and which attempts to stop acts of piracy succeeded versus which ones failed. The parameters focus on the period between 1783 and 1815 for 2 the Barbary corsairs. For the Somali pirates, the study will focus on the time period between 1991 and 2009, concentrating specifically on the period between 1999 and 2009. Finally, the remaining section will focus on analysis of the case studies, and will include the alternative solutions for combating piracy, as well as the case for naval action. The analysis portion will examine what worked and what did not in both cases, and the reasons for success or failure. Also, this section will look at what lessons can be learned from previous experience, and how they may be applied in the future. In the alternative solutions segment, the cases for the use of diplomacy, on-board deterrents, ransom payments, and a land-based solution will be presented. Within each, the positives and negatives of the approach will be discussed. Lastly, the portion on naval action will also discuss the strengths and weaknesses of a military approach, but will illustrate how the United States Navy is better equipped to deal with maritime piracy, and is thus the most viable course of action for the United States to pursue. For the purposes of this research it is imperative to differentiate between terrorism and piracy, as well as pirates and corsairs, or privateers. While there are numerous definitions of terrorism, those used for the purposes of this research are those provided by the United States National Counterterrorism Center and the U.S. Department of Defense, which classify terrorism as the following: • The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. 1; or 1 United States Department of Defense “Military Definition of Terrorism.” http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/t/05461.html . 3 • Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents. 2 Modern piracy, like terrorism, has a variety of definitions. Two are common, one outlined in the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, and the other defined by the International Maritime Bureau. By modern standards, piracy is: • (a) Any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew