THE CREATION OF SLAVE CHRISTIANITY IN VIRGINIA, 1770-1850 by Gabriel Turner Klehr A dissertation submitted to the Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore Maryland October, 2013 ABSTRACT This dissertation is a broad examination of black Baptist cultures within biracial churches in Virginia from the American Revolution until 1850, a time of intense growth in slave Christianity. When slaves converted in Virginia, most converted in, and became members of, biracial churches. These churches created new relationships between whites and blacks. The dissertation follows the efforts of black Baptists to construct their faith and their relationships within the constraints of churches that were controlled by their white male membership. My research reveals a fuller picture of biracial Baptist communities than scholars have previously constructed. Most slave members of Baptist churches were not owned by the whites in their churches. In addition, whites and slaves in Baptist churches usually did not live in the same places. Slaves were more likely to reside on larger plantations and whites to live on smaller farms. Slaves and whites in biracial churches were linked by complex geographic and social ties that cut across the boundaries of farms and plantations. Biracial churches could be sites of conflicts between white leaders and slaves who covertly resisted their efforts to use churches as methods of social control. They were also, however, the sites of conflicts among slaves over the meaning of conversion to evangelical Christianity. The dissertation brings to light the conflicts in slave communities caused by the growth of Christianity, involving issues such as marriage, divorce, and alcohol use. This project relies heavily on case studies of particular churches that illustrate broad themes, supplemented by chapters that use data drawn from diverse areas to explore particular dynamics. Baptist slaves did not passively accept Baptist fellowship and worship. Blacks begun to join Baptist churches in significant numbers at ii the same time as the church brought in many white converts. In this period of growth, slaves dramatically influenced Baptist worship. At the same time, they constructed a distinct form of Baptist Christianity. The dissertation concludes by looking at the black leaders of biracial churches who carved out their careers by acting as intermediaries between the white men who controlled biracial churches and slave members of these churches. iii iv Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the support of a great many people. First of all, without the support of my parents, Marcy Steinberg Klehr, Harvey Klehr, and Elizabeth Klehr none of this would have been possible. My brothers, Benjamin Klehr, Joshua Klehr, and Aaron Hodes all were unfailingly supportive even if they sometimes wondered why writing a dissertation seemed to take so long. My sister in laws Annsley Klehr and Lauren Klehr were willing to put up with me sleeping on their couches and generally hanging around. My Niece, Layla Klehr, didn’t really understand what a dissertation was or why someone so old was still in school, but provided love and support nonetheless. I would also like to thank my extended family: Lenny Klehr, Susan Klehr, Robin Klehr Avia, Kenny Avia, Carolyn Neely, John Neely, Sam Brummer, Ronny Brummer, Mark Brummer, Michael Brummer, Zach Klehr, Eli Klehr, Sam Klehr, Alli Avia, Thomas Neely, Jordan Chase Danny Chase, Marilyn Steinberg, Mickey Steinberg, Ellen Steinberg, Vicky Benjamin, Jerry Benjamin, Gene Wiemers and Nancy Jennings, all of whom provided support encouragement and love. I would particularly like to thank my oldest friends who knew me long before graduate school and who have remained close throughout it; Ben Sitter, Elizabeth Anderson, Elena Feinstein, Andy King, Sarah Reidy, Jackie Reitzes, and Paul Root. Throughout my time in graduate school I was lucky enough to have close friends who made my time in Baltimore a joy and a pleasure. Ian Beamish, Chris Stolarski, Matthew Bender, Claire Breedlove, Claire Cage, David Woodworth, Katie Hindmarch- Watson, Natalie Elder, Khalid Kurji, Alex Orquiza, Dave Schley, Jessica Valdez, Ren v Pepitone, Katie Reinhardt, Laurel Flinn, Jason Hoppe, Amanda Herbert, Kenny Sheppard and Will Brown all were generous with their friendship, and sometimes their beer and food. At Connecticut College where I spent a year I was lucky enough to be advised and taught by Catherine Stock. She likely has little memory of me, but her passion for history and her kind mentoring was partially responsible for persuading me to pursue an undergraduate degree in History and provided an early model for me. At Emory University, I again had wonderful mentors. Tom Burns was unfailingly attentive and interested in my scattered work and ideas. This project had its genesis in an honors dissertation written under the direction of Jim Roark at Emory. In Dr. Roark’s classes I first started to think about pursuing the study of Southern History and his guidance was invaluable both in finishing my thesis and in the process of applying to graduate school. Every Chapter of this dissertation was read and commented on by the members of the 19th century seminar in the History Department. Ian Beamish, Steffi Cerrato, Rob Gamble, Steph Gamble, Patrick Luck, Sarah Adelman, John Matsui, Amy Breakwell, Craig Hollander, Dan Vivian, Kate Sohasky and Noah Cincinnati all made many helpful suggestions many of which were incorporated into this dissertation. Those suggestions I did not take, I probably should have. Dave Schley, Ian Beamish, Jackie Reitzes, Ben Klehr, Katie Reinhardt and Gene Wiemers all edited or proofread chapters at various stages. Their attention to detail saved me from many embarrassing typos, grammatical infelicities and rambling sentences. Any mistakes that remain, of course, are my responsibility alone. At the Virginia Baptist Historical Society where I did much of the research for this project, Darlene Herod provided valuable assistance and help. Charles vi Irons gave helpful comments on a version of chapter two, Jane Dailey encouraged my interest in this project and gave helpful suggestions and critiques as I formulated the questions that this dissertation begun with. Ron Walters read several chapters and provided much helpful encouragement. Phil Morgan has been helpful throughout graduate school. I would particularly like to thank the members of my defense committee, Jared Hickman, Bill Leslie, Angus Burgin, Ron Walters and particularly Mike Johnson my advisor. I was fortunate to have Mike as a mentor. He was always willing to let me see where my project lay. His attention to sources and detail has provided a model I have tried as best I could to emulate in my scholarship. His careful and attentive editing and guidance made this dissertation possible. Alice Wiemers is, in addition to everything else, an excellent editor. Her eye for organizational structure, narrative flow and argument improved this dissertation immeasurably. I may not have always received her criticisms gracefully but she was nearly always right and she was far more patient than I deserved. As well as editorial support Alice was always there for me throughout this process and I owe her more than I can express here or anywhere else. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE: Frederick Douglass, the Slave Church and Historical Imagination ............................... 35 CHAPTER TWO: Geographies of Faith and Slavery: Two Case Studies of Virginia Churches ............... 64 CHAPTER THREE: Let No Man Put Asunder: Church Discipline and Marriage among Slaves ........... 101 CHAPTER FOUR: Black Deacons in the First Baptist Church of Richmond ......................................... 141 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 184 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: MEMBERSHIP OF FOUR MILE CREEK BAPTIST CHURCH BY RACE, GENDER AND STATUS, 1824-1833 ................................................................................................................... 73 TABLE 2: SOUTH QUAY BAPTIST CHURCH CONVERSIONS, 1788-1829 .............................................. 85 TABLE 3: SLAVEHOLDING OF OWNERS OF SLAVE MEMBERS OF FOUR MILE CREEK BAPTIST CHURCH ..................................................................................................................................................... 99 TABLE 4: CONVERSIONS IN SOUTH QUAY BAPTIST CHURCH BY YEAR ...................................... 100 TABLE 5: BLACK DEACONS AT FIRST BAPTIST CHURCH APPOINTED FROM 1824- 1832 .................................................................................................................................................................................. 159 ix LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: MAP OF SELECTED FOUR MILE CREEK CHURCH MEMBERS ................................... 78 FIGURE 2: SOUTH QUAY BAPTIST CHURCH, SOUTHAMPTON COUNTY, VIRGINIA, ORIGINAL BUILDING .................................................................................................................... 84 FIGURE 3: NUMBERS OF CONVERTS TO SOUTH QUAY CHURCH FROM 1788-1829 ................ 87 FIGURE 4: THE CHOWAN RIVER BASIN ...........................................................................................