Karl Kaser Patriarchy after Patriarchy Studies on South East Europe edited by Prof. Dr. Karl Kaser (Graz) vol. 7 LIT Karl Kaser Patriarchy after Patriarchy Gender Relations in Turkey and in the Balkans, 1500 – 2000 LIT Ñ ½ Gedruckt auf alterungsbeständigem Werkdruckpapier entsprechend ANSI Z3948 DIN ISO 9706 Gedruckt mit Unterstützung des Bundesministeriums für Wissenschaft und Forschung in Wien und der Karl Franzens-Universität Graz Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. ISBN 978-3-7000-0798-2 (Österreich) ISBN 978-3-8258-1119-8 (Deutschland) A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © LIT VERLAG GmbH & Co. KG Wien 2008 LIT VERLAG Dr. W.Hopf Krotenthallergasse 10/8 Berlin 2008 A-1080 Wien Auslieferung/Verlagskontakt: Tel. +43 (0) 1 / 409 56 61 Fresnostr. 2 Fax +43 (0) 1 / 409 56 97 D-48159 Münster e-Mail: [email protected] Tel. +49 (0)251–62 03 20 http://www.lit-verlag.at Fax +49 (0)251–23 19 72 e-Mail: [email protected] http://www.lit-verlag.de Auslieferung: Österreich/Schweiz: Medienlogistik Pichler-ÖBZ GmbH & Co KG IZ-NÖ, Süd, Straße 1, Objekt 34, A-2355 Wiener Neudorf Tel. +43 (0) 2236/63 535 - 290, Fax +43 (0) 2236/63 535 - 243, e-Mail: [email protected] Deutschland: LIT Verlag Fresnostr. 2, D-48159 Münster Tel. +49 (0) 2 51/620 32 - 22, Fax +49 (0) 2 51/922 60 99, e-Mail: [email protected] Distributed in the UK by: Global Book Marketing, 99B Wallis Rd, London, E9 5LN Phone: +44 (0) 20 8533 5800 – Fax: +44 (0) 1600 775 663 http://www.centralbooks.co.uk/acatalog/search.html Preface When I was asking myself what place could be the most inspiring for the writ- ing of this book, the metropolis of Istanbul automatically came to mind. Consti- tuting one of the geographical bridges between the “Orient” and the “Occi- dent”, between “Asia” and “Europe”, the city, stretching along both sides of the Bosporus, became the ideal working site in my imagination. It constitutes the geographic centre of an imagined region that I will call Eurasia Minor in this book – consisting of the Balkan countries and Turkey. Not accidentally, these regions had formed the core of what used to be the Ottoman Empire for about six centuries, and Istanbul was the seat of its sultans. In my opinion, Eurasia Minor is a kind of remnant of the Ottoman Empire and, in several respects, still constitutes a regional entity – gender relations not excluded. This book would not have seen the light of day without the release I obtained from most of my duties as an academic teacher. My employer, the Karl- Franzens-University of Graz, Austria, generously gave me permission to leave my workplace for a semester in order to move to the city at the Bosporus. I am very grateful for this opportunity. Moreover, I wish to thank Canay and Malte Fuhrmann for offering their apartment in the Muradiye Mahallesi for my use for the duration of my sabbatical, and Hannes Grandits, Siegfried Gruber, Joel M. Halpern, Gentiana Kera, Enriketa Pandelejmoni, Robert Pichler, Christian Promitzer, and Michaela Wolf for their critical comments. Istanbul and Graz, 2007 Contents Preface 1 Abbreviations 4 List of Tables 5 Introduction 9 Eurasia Minor: Historical-Cultural Context 10 Bibliographical, Methodological, and Theoretical Notes 20 Chapter 1 Patriarchy in Power (ca. 1500-1950) 33 1. Kinship Relations 36 Kinship Relations in Europe and the Near Eas 38 Kinship Terminology among the Peoples of Eurasia Minor 44 The Patrilineal Descent Group 46 Spiritual Kinship 51 2. Family Forms 56 The Rural Family 57 Urban Households 75 3. Stability and Dynamic Change 84 Patriarchal Persistence 85 Patriarchy Questioned 93 Chapter 2 The Decline of Patriarchy (approx. 1950-1990) 115 1. Social Transformation and Population Politics 118 Industrialazation and Urbanization 121 Modernization 126 General Demographic Trends 129 Abortion and Pronatalist Policy 131 2. State Patriarchy and State Feminism 141 The “Women’s Question” and Its Official Resolution 145 Women’s Movements 152 Informality 159 3. Ideological Trends and the Growth of the Nuclear Family 162 The Socialist Family – Ideology and Reality 164 The Rural Family and Social Change 169 The Urban Family 180 Chapter 3 The Continuity of Patriarchy 187 1. Personalized Relationships 189 Economic and Demographic Realities 191 Providing for Social Security 196 Kin, Patron, Client 199 The Old Problem: Lacking Integration of the Periphery 205 2. Male Democracies 208 Patriarchal Backlash 209 Women in the Public Sphere 216 Men and the Other Sexes 223 Counter Force: Organized Women 231 3. Contemporary Gender Relations 237 The Transnational Household 238 Weak Signs of The Second Demographic Transition 242 Fertility, Sexuality, and Contraception 251 Marriage and Marriage Arrangements 260 The Young Generation 266 Conclusions 273 Bibliography 283 Index 317 4 Patriarchy after Patriarchy Abbreviations EU – European Union FDT – First Demographic Transition GDP – Gross Domestic Product GDR – German Democratic Republic IUD – Interuterine Devices MENA – Middle East and North African Countries OECD – Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PKK – Kurdish Worker’s Party SDT – Second Demographic Transition SIRYA – Steady Intimate Relationship of Young Adults Patriarchy after Patriarchy 5 List of Tables Table 1: The Population (July 2006, estimated) and Territories of Eurasia Minor 14 Table 2: Population (in thousands) and Population Density (per km2) of the Ottoman Balkans, 1790-1910 16 Table 3: Ottoman Population, 1893-1914 17 Table 4: Population Increase, Decrease, and Fertility (births per woman) in the Countries of Eurasia Minor in Comparison 18 Table 5: GDP (per capita, in US $) of Eurasia Minor’s Countries, in comparison, 2003 19 Table 6: Kinship Terminology in Balkan and Turkish Languages 44 Table 7: Unmarried Men and Women at the Age of 45 to 49 (in per cent, around 1900) 60 Table 8: Married Men and Women of Rural Serbia According to Age Groups (in per cent), 1863 62 Table 9: Average Age at Marriage, Female Population of Orašac, 1870-1939 62 Table 10: Differences of Western and Eastern Balkans 88 Table 11: Life Expectancy at Birth, by Country and Sex, 1910-1995 106 Table 12: Total Fertility Rate (average number of children per woman) per Country, 1920-2004 107 Table 13: Average Age of Population in Various European Countries, 1950-2000 108 Table 14: Percentage of Population in the Agrarian Sector, Balkan Countries, 1910 120 Table 15: Proportion of Agrarian Population Compared to the Overall Population in the Yugoslav Republics South of the Save-Danube-Line and in the Serbian Province of Kosovo/Kosova 1948-1981 (in per cent) 122 Table 16: Population Growth of Major Bulgarian Cities, 1934-1985 (in 1,000 inhabitants) 125 6 Patriarchy after Patriarchy Table 17: Births, Abortions, and Birth Rates, Bulgaria, 1950-1967 132 Table 18: Births, Abortions, and Birth Rates, Romania, 1950-1966 132 Table 19: Births, Abortions, and Birth Rates, Romania, 1966-1990 135 Table 20: Births, Abortions, and Birth Rates, Albania, 1950-1995 135 Table 21: Births, Abortions, and Birth Rates, Bulgaria, 1967-1990 136 Table 22: Birth Rates, Greece, 1935-1999 138 Table 23: Women’s Participation in Labour Force in Industry and Agriculture, Albania, 1960-1990 146 Table 24: Rate of Female Employment, Bulgaria, 1952-1988 (in per cent of Labour Force) 147 Table 25: Females Among University Students, Albania (in per cent, 1960-1990) 148 Table 26: Literacy Rates by Sex in Turkey, 1927-1975 (ages six and higher) 149 Table 27: Labour Force Participation of Turkish Population (ages 15 and higher), 1950-1975 150 Table 28: Household Typology, Bulgaria (in per cent, 1975) 165 Table 29: Fertility Rates of Serbia Proper and Kosovo/Kosova, 1950-1983 172 Table 30: Mortality and Natural Population Growth among Macedonians and Albanians, Socialist Republic of Macedonia, 1953-1981 173 Table 31: Household Typology of Eleven Serbian Villages and Towns (in per cent, 1863) 178 Table 32: Family Composition of Orašac (1961) Compared to Albanian Villages in 1930 and 1950 (in per cent) 178 Table 33: Poverty Rates by Ethnic Group (in per cent, Bulgaria, 1999) 193 Table 34: Unemployment Totals and Overall Population Rates for Women, Romania (in per cent, 1991-1996) 193 Table 35: Evolution of Labour Force Participation of Selected MENA Countries 195 Patriarchy after Patriarchy 7 Table 36: Female Economic Activity Rate (2003) 195 Table 37: Living Arrangements of Persons Aged 65 (in per cent), Unmarried, 1989-1992 197 Table 38: Gender-related Development Index 2004 and 2003, Regions and Countries Compared 210 Table 39: Being Only a Housewife is fulfilling (per cent of women, around 2000) 215 Table 40: Labour Force Participation of the Population (ages 15 and higher), Turkey, 1950-1975 216 Table 41: Average Male and Female Income (Purchasing Power Parity, in US $), 2004 217 Table 42: Adult Literacy in Eurasia Minor, Age 15 and Higher (in per cent, 2004) 218 Table 43: Women’s Political Participation, Selected MENA Countries, 1980s/1990s 220 Table 44: Women’s Seats in Parliament, selected European Countries (in per cent, 2003/2004) 221 Table 45: Men Make Better Political Leadership (per cent of women’s agreement) 221 Table 46: Serbian Population by Marital Status (over 15 years of age) (in per cent, 2003) 245 Table 47: Living with Parents (in per cent, around 2000) 248 Table 48: Women