Adult Education as a Stabilizing Response to Conflict Carolyn Johnstone Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Institute of Education, University of London 1 ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to examine how adult education can be part of an international response in societies recovering from conflict, which can stabilize rather than de-stabilize, thus enhancing security. The guiding hypothesis was that there has been a failure to recognize the contribution adult education can make in building a secure society, resulting in policy vacuums and under-funding of the sector. The three countries studied were Cambodia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Iraq. The study relied primarily on documentary research, but also on opportunistic data collection during periods of work in each of the three countries. By identifying common themes and practices in each specific scenario, it has been possible to determine the links between adult education and security. The findings supported the guiding hypothesis and affirmed that adult education can play a key role in stabilizing a post-conflict society. The resultant understanding of the links between adult education and societal development underpin a new framework for adult education in such societies, which balances short-term security issues with community values and the longer term requirements of society, reducing the potential for future conflict. An analytical tool and a checklist for adult education practitioners were developed as part of that framework. These could potentially inform decision making within the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the United Kingdom government and the British military. 2 I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own. Word count (exclusive of annexes, list of references and bibliography): 79, 784 words Carolyn Johnstone “Every hour Jonathan was there at the side of each of his students, demonstrating, suggesting, pressuring, guiding. He flew with them through the night and cloud and storm, for the sport of it, while the Flock huddled miserably on the ground.” From Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach, the book about a seagull which encapsulates everything important in adult education. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. 7 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 9 ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM IN CONTEXT AND RATIONALE .................................. 13 1.1 AN INSECURE WORLD ................................................................................... 13 1.2 MODELS OF CONFLICT, HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTIONS AND SECURITY ........................................................................................................ 16 1.3 CIVILIAN AND MILITARY COLLABORATION ................................................ 17 1.4 RATIONALE AND STRUCTURE FOR THE THESIS ...................................... 21 CHAPTER 2 AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................... 23 2.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................ 23 2.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................. 23 2.3 OUTCOMES AND UTILITY .............................................................................. 27 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ................................................... 28 3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 28 3.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................... 28 3.3 UNDERPINNING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ...................................... 32 3.4 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 33 3.5 RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................................... 35 3.5.1 Establishing Access to Data ..................................................................... 35 3.5.2 Potential Bias in the Data.......................................................................... 36 3.5.3 Types of Data ............................................................................................ 37 3.5.4 The Internet and E-Research ................................................................... 39 3.6 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER 4 LITERATURE AND THEORY REVIEW ................................................... 41 4.1 PRACTICALITIES ............................................................................................. 41 4.2 RESEARCH PROCESS ................................................................................... 43 4.3 WAYS: THE CONCEPT OF ADULT EDUCATION .......................................... 45 4.3.1 Links to the Community ............................................................................ 49 4.3.2 Purposes ................................................................................................... 50 4.3.3 Structural Aspects within States ............................................................... 51 4.4 WAYS: THE IDEA OF INTERNATIONAL INTERVENTIONS .......................... 51 4.5 WAYS: THE NOTION OF 'SOFT' SECURITY ................................................. 55 4.5.1 Vocational Training, Employment and Capital Labour ............................. 58 4.5.2 Nation Building: Democracy and Stabilization.......................................... 59 4.5.3 Rights and Morals ..................................................................................... 59 4.5.4 Challenging Views and Extremism ........................................................... 60 4 4.5.5 General Problems and Dilemmas ............................................................. 61 4.6 MEANS: DOCUMENTS AND DATA ON FINANCIAL MATTERS ................... 62 4.7 MEANS: DOCUMENTS AND DATA ON COUNTRIES BEING STUDIED ...... 65 4.8 MEANS: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ..................................................... 68 4.8.1 Adult Education and Lifelong Learning ..................................................... 68 4.8.2 Community Learning ................................................................................. 68 4.8.3 Political Activism ....................................................................................... 69 4.8.4 Realism and Idealism ................................................................................ 70 4.8.5 Critical Social Theories ............................................................................. 70 4.8.6 Visualizing data ......................................................................................... 70 4.9 ENDS: LINKING THEORY TO PRACTICE ...................................................... 71 CHAPTER 5 DOCUMENTARY CASE STUDY – CAMBODIA ..................................... 75 5.1 COUNTRY PROFILE ........................................................................................ 75 5.2 DOCUMENT GATHERING AND DATA COLLECTION................................... 77 5.3 ADULT EDUCATION FOR COMMUNITY SAFETY AND THE REINTEGRATION OF RETURNING REFUGEES .......................................... 81 5.4 ADULT EDUCATION FOR MILITIAS AND MILITARY PERSONNEL INCLUDING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING ............................................ 83 5.5 ADULT EDUCATION IN SUPPORT OF HUMAN RIGHTS, DEMOCRATIZATION AND ELECTIONS......................................................... 90 5.6 CO-ORDINATION AND THE ORGANIZATIONS PROVIDING ADULT EDUCATION IN CAMBODIA ............................................................................ 93 5.7 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 99 CHAPTER 6 DOCUMENTARY CASE STUDY – BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA ............. 100 6.1 COUNTRY PROFILE ...................................................................................... 100 6.2 DOCUMENT GATHERING AND DATA COLLECTION................................. 104 6.3 PUBLIC INFORMATION AND ADULT EDUCATION .................................... 106 6.3.1 Mines Awareness .................................................................................... 106 6.3.2 Identity and Nation Building .................................................................... 108 6.4 ADULT EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRATIZATION AND VOTER EDUCATION 112 6.5 CIVIL-MILITARY CO-OPERATION DURING THE INTERVENTION IN BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA ............................................................................... 114 6.6 HIGHER EDUCATION INCLUDING TEACHER DEVELOPMENT ............... 117 6.7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 120 CHAPTER 7 DOCUMENTARY CASE STUDY – IRAQ .............................................. 121 7.1 COUNTRY PROFILE ...................................................................................... 121 7.2 GATHERING DOCUMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION .............................. 125 7.3 ADULT EDUCATION IN