When men and mountains meet; Rūiamoko, western science and political ecology in Aotearoa/New Zealand A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Science in Geography by Laura Jardine-Coom University of Canterbury 2009 ‘Men and mountains’ a plaque on a boulder in Kaitoke Regional Park 2 Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... 6 1. Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 2. Glossary ..................................................................................................................................................... 8 3. He kupu whakataki-Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10 3.1 Mihi.................................................................................................................................................... 10 3.2 Mihi tuarua ........................................................................................................................................ 10 3.3 How to read this thesis ...................................................................................................................... 11 3.4 The geography of Rūiamoko; Ruapehu and the Taupo Volcanic Zone ............................................. 12 3.5 Why study the Mt Ruapehu lahars? .................................................................................................. 16 3.6 Research ethics: A voyage of discovery ............................................................................................ 17 3.7 So what’s in it for me? ....................................................................................................................... 20 3.8 Mahi te mahi ..................................................................................................................................... 21 3.9 The direction of this thesis ................................................................................................................ 23 4. The ‘State of Nature’; Kaitiakitanga and colonial science in Aotearoa/New Zealand ............................ 25 4.1 The state of nature and the scientific enlightenment ....................................................................... 25 4.2 Natural lore or scientific law? ........................................................................................................... 28 4.2.1 The ‘Romantic Savage’ ............................................................................................................... 31 4.3 Colonial theory and the colonisation of Aotearoa/New Zealand ..................................................... 32 4.4 Postcolonialism to neocolonialism in Aotearoa/New Zealand ......................................................... 34 4.5 ‘If this is your land where are your stories?’ Oral histories and self- determination ....................... 37 5. Papa-tū-ā-nuku, mātauranga Māori and kaitiakitanga ........................................................................... 41 5.1 Kaitiakitanga and Māori worldviews ................................................................................................. 41 5.1.2 Tikanga ....................................................................................................................................... 44 3 5.1.3 Turangawaewae ......................................................................................................................... 46 5.1.4 Whakapapa ................................................................................................................................. 48 5.1.5 Kaitiakitanga ............................................................................................................................... 48 5.2 Te Tiriti; The Treaty of Waitangi ........................................................................................................ 50 5.3 Tuwharetoa ....................................................................................................................................... 52 5.3.1 Ngāti Hikairo Ki Tongariro Trust ................................................................................................. 56 5.3.2 Ngāti Manunui ............................................................................................................................ 56 5.4 Ngāti Hikairo ...................................................................................................................................... 57 5.5 Ngāti Rangi ........................................................................................................................................ 60 5.6 The ‘Gifting’ of the Peaks .................................................................................................................. 63 6. At the interface of the human and the ‘natural’: Hazard management and response theory ............... 69 6.1 ‘Natural’ or ‘social’? Emerging theories in natural hazard management ......................................... 70 6.2 ‘Natural’ resource management: Examples of co-operation between indigenous groups and Governments. .......................................................................................................................................... 73 6.3 Indigenous people’s involvement in hazard management: An international overview. .................. 76 6.4 Resource management in Aotearoa/New Zealand 2009: The current state of co-management. ... 77 6.4.1 The role of the Waitangi Tribunal in fostering co-management ............................................... 79 6.4.2 The status quo; Legislative mandate for the inclusion of Māori worldviews in resource management ....................................................................................................................................... 80 6.4.3 The Department of Conservation; Building good partnerships? .............................................. 81 6.4.4 Iwi perspective on Crown/Iwi partnerships: the Iwi of the Central Volcanic Plateau and Whanganui River respond ................................................................................................................... 84 6.5 Whakapapa for geothermal resources in Aotearoa/New Zealand ................................................... 87 6.6 Differing perceptions of ‘natural hazards’ in Aotearoa/New Zealand .............................................. 90 7. Tangiwai and the Whangaehu lahars ...................................................................................................... 93 7.1 The 1953 Tangiwai rail disaster ......................................................................................................... 93 7.2 Tangiwai lahar, 18 March 2007 ......................................................................................................... 95 4 7.3 Iwi response to the lahar risk ............................................................................................................ 99 7.4 The Whangaehu/Tongariro bund .................................................................................................... 101 7.5 Lahar! The 2007 event ..................................................................................................................... 101 7.6 Post Lahar ........................................................................................................................................ 102 7.7 Lahar press: media and the Mountain ............................................................................................ 103 7.7.1 Mediating the Mountain .......................................................................................................... 104 7.7.2 Indigenous Media and Resistance ............................................................................................ 107 8. Claiming a dual heritage: resource management from a position of Tangata Whenua ....................... 110 8.1 Learning from Matua Ruapehu: lessons from the Lahar ................................................................ 110 8.2 Empowering the Waitangi Tribunal ................................................................................................ 113 8.3 Resistance as identity: Edward Said and self-determination .......................................................... 116 8.4 Indigenous Pakeha and ‘Tribal Envy’ ............................................................................................... 119 8.4.1 From Māori/Pakeha to Tangata Whenua ................................................................................. 121 9. Conclusion: When men and mountains meet ....................................................................................... 124 10. References ........................................................................................................................................... 128 5 Acknowledgements Thank you to Julia Becker, Rawiri Faulkner and Diane Bradshaw of GNS for taking me under their wings, driving me around, and buying me coffee on a regular basis. To Julie Cupples, thank you for your enthusiasm and good grammar. Kia ora to Garth Cant, someone who I can never thank enough, for the autograph and dinner with my hero, for being able to