University of Huddersfield Repository Heap, Victoria Understanding public perceptions of anti-social behaviour: problems and policy responses Original Citation Heap, Victoria (2010) Understanding public perceptions of anti-social behaviour: problems and policy responses. Doctoral thesis, University of Huddersfield. This version is available at http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/9209/ The University Repository is a digital collection of the research output of the University, available on Open Access. Copyright and Moral Rights for the items on this site are retained by the individual author and/or other copyright owners. 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For more information, including our policy and submission procedure, please contact the Repository Team at: [email protected]. http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/ UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR: PROBLEMS AND POLICY RESPONSES VICTORIA HEAP A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Huddersfield with the Home Office as Collaborating Establishment July 2010 Contents Contents 2 Abstract 9 Copyright statement 10 Acknowledgements 11 List of tables 12 List of figures 14 Foreword 15 i. Introduction 15 ii. What is Anti-Social Behaviour? 15 iii. Where has ASB Come From? 15 iv. Public Perceptions of ASB 16 v. Scope and Structure of the Thesis 16 Chapter One: Literature Review 19 1.1 Introduction 19 1.2 Theoretical Approaches to Deviance and Disorder Prior to 1998 19 1.2.1 Nostalgia and Moral Panics 21 1.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Disorder 22 1.2.2.1 Environmental Causation (Built and Social) 22 1.2.2.2 Individual Explanations 24 1.2.3 ‘Communitarianism’ 26 1.3 The Political Origins of ASB Legislation 26 1.3.1 The Conservative Years (1979-1997) 27 1.3.2 New Labour, New Priorities 28 1.3.3 Similarities to American Policy 29 1.4 ASB Legislation 30 1.4.1 Legislation Tackling Nuisance Behaviour Prior to 1998 30 1.4.2 The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 32 1.4.3 ASBO Legislation 33 1.4.4 Additional New Labour First Term Legislation 35 1.4.5 Policy Momentum 35 1.4.6 New Labour’s Second Term Expansion 36 1.4.7 The Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 37 2 1.4.8 New Labour’s Third Term - An Era of Respect 38 1.4.9 ASB Legislation and Social Housing 39 1.4.10 New Labour’s Change of Leadership 40 1.4.11 The Construction and Control of ASB 40 1.5 Criticisms of ASB Policy 42 1.5.1 Human Rights Implications 42 1.5.2 Criticisms of ASBO Legislation 44 1.6 Defining ASB 46 1.6.1 Subjectivity 47 1.6.2 Tolerance 48 1.6.3 Applying the Definition of ASB - Measurement 48 1.6.4 Applying the Definition of ASB - Law Enforcement 50 1.6.5 Political Influences on the Definition of ASB 50 1.7 A New Era of Deviance? 51 1.7.1 Political Developments 51 1.7.2 Re-defining Deviance 51 1.7.3 Additional Mitigating Factors 53 1.8 Public Perceptions of ASB 53 1.8.1 Measuring Perceptions of ASB 55 1.8.2 National Perceptions Data 57 1.8.3 Local Perceptions Data 59 1.8.4 Research into Public Perceptions of ASB 60 1.8.5 Interventions that Reduce Perceived High Levels of ASB 62 1.8.6 Research from the International Context 62 1.8.7 Political Significance of Perceptions 63 1.8.8 The Mass Media and Public Perceptions of ASB 63 1.9 New Developments since Fieldwork Commenced 65 1.9.1 Policy Developments 65 1.9.2 Research Developments 66 1.10 Summary 67 Chapter Two: Research Methodology 68 2.1 Introduction 68 2.2 Research Aims 68 2.3 Philosophies of Research 69 2.4 Research Approach 71 3 2.4.1 Selection of Research Strategy 71 2.4.2 Selection of Research Design 75 2.5 Sampling 78 2.6 Phase One Research 82 2.6.1 Research Methods 82 2.6.2 Sampling for the Questionnaire 83 2.6.3 The Questionnaire 84 2.6.4 Administering the Questionnaire 86 2.6.5 Questionnaire Data Analysis 88 2.6.6 The Logistic Regression Process 90 2.6.7 Phase One Limitations 92 2.7 Phase Two Research 92 2.7.1 Research Methods 92 2.7.2 Sampling 93 2.7.3 Focus Group Administration 94 2.7.4 Qualitative Data Analysis 96 2.7.5 Phase Two Limitations 96 2.8 Phase Three Research 97 2.8.1 Research Methods 97 2.8.2 Sampling 98 2.8.3 Interview Process 99 2.8.4 Phase Three Limitations 101 2.9 Generating Inferences 101 2.10 Ethical Issues 101 2.10.1 Access to Participants 102 2.10.2 General Public Participants 102 2.10.3 Practitioner Participants 102 2.10.4 Confidentiality 103 2.10.5 Anonymity 103 2.10.6 Informed Consent 103 2.10.7 Psychological Support for Participants 103 2.10.8 Researcher Safety 104 2.10.9 Data Collection Tools 104 2.10.10 Dissemination of Results 104 2.11 Conclusion 104 4 Chapter Three: Phase One Results 105 Quantifying Public Perceptions of ASB in Four Areas 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 Methodological Considerations and Fieldwork Details 106 Phase One Results - Section A Descriptive Statistics 3.3 Descriptive Statistics 108 3.4 The Understanding of ASB 108 3.5 Experiences of ASB 110 3.5.1 The Combined Perceptions Measure 110 3.5.2 Types of ASB Experienced 112 3.5.3 Reporting ASB 112 3.6 General Perceptions of ASB 113 3.6.1 Perceived Motivation for Committing ASB 113 3.6.2 Perceived Changes in ASB Prevalence 114 3.6.3 Factors Influencing Perceptions 116 3.7 Situating ASB within the Context of Crime 116 3.8 Tackling ASB 117 3.9 Reflections on Descriptive Statistics 117 Phase One Results - Section B Logistic Regression Analysis 3.10 Logistic Regression Analysis 119 3.11 Tests to Determine Significant X² Associations 119 3.12 Selection of Predictor Variables 121 3.13 Sample Size Testing 123 3.14 Collinearity Diagnostic Testing 124 3.15 Full Sample Findings 124 3.16 Respect Sub-Sample Findings 125 3.17 Non-Respect Sub-Sample Findings 127 3.18 Summary of Logistic Regression Findings 127 3.19 Reflections on Logistic Regression Findings 128 3.20 Conclusions 129 5 Chapter Four: Phase Two Results 130 Factors that Influence Public Perceptions of ASB 4.1 Introduction 130 4.2 The Definition of ASB 133 4.3 The Combined Perceptions Measure 134 4.4 The Perceived Extent of Local ASB Problems 135 4.4.1 Personal Experience of ASB 135 4.4.2 Interventions and Perception Change 136 4.4.3 Displacement 137 4.4.4 Location of ASB Experienced 138 4.4.5 Situating ASB in a Wider Context 138 4.5 The Nature of ASB Experienced 139 4.6 Factors that Informed Public Perceptions of ASB 143 4.7 Concern about ASB 145 4.8 Public Perceptions of the Authorities Tackling ASB 147 4.9 Being Kept Informed about ASB 152 4.10 Reporting Incidents of ASB to the Authorities 152 4.11 The Impact of the Media 157 4.12 The Perception of ASB Sanctions 159 4.13 Designated Respect Status 161 4.14 Conclusions 161 Chapter Five: Phase Three Results 167 How Practitioners Address Public Perceptions of ASB 5.1 Introduction 167 Phase Three Results - Section A Factors Directly Associated with Addressing Public Perceptions of ASB 5.2 Section A Introduction 170 5.3 The Combined Perceptions Measure 170 5.4 Measuring Perceptions Locally 172 5.5 Tackling Public Perceptions of ASB 173 5.6 Communicating with the Public 177 5.7 Issues with Communicating with the Public 179 5.8 Priority of Reducing Public Perceptions 181 5.9 Reported Incidents of ASB and Perceptions of ASB 182 6 5.10 Section A Summary 183 Phase Three Results - Section B Factors Indirectly Associated with Addressing Public Perceptions of ASB 5.11 Section B Introduction 186 5.12 Problems Experienced by Practitioners 186 5.13 The Definition of ASB 189 5.14 Subjectivity and Tolerance 190 5.15 Reporting Incidents of ASB 192 5.16 Respect Status 194 5.17 The Home Office 195 5.18 Section B Summary 196 Phase Three Results - Section C Additional Factors Considered to Impact upon Public Perceptions of ASB outside the Control of Practitioners 5.19 Section C Introduction 198 5.20 The Courts System 198 5.21 Public Expectations of the Authorities 200 5.22 The Media 201 5.23 Section C Summary 202 5.24 Conclusions 203 Chapter Six: Discussion of Findings 205 6.1 Introduction 205 6.2 The Impact of the Definition of ASB upon Perceptions 205 6.3 Measuring Perceptions of ASB 207 6.4 Exploring Public Perceptions of ASB 210 6.4.1 The Perceived Extent of Local ASB 210 6.4.2 Displacement 211 6.4.3 The Nature of Local ASB Experienced 211 6.4.4 Factors Informing Perceptions 212 6.4.5 Concern about ASB 212 6.5 Public and Practitioner Relations 214 6.5.1 Great Expectations 214 6.5.2 Reporting ASB 216 7 6.5.3 Tackling ASB 217 6.5.4 Priority of Reducing Public Perceptions 218 6.5.5 Communicating with the Public 218 6.6 Additional Factors 220 6.6.1 The Role of the Media 220 6.6.2 Respect Status 220 6.7 Conclusions 221 Chapter Seven: Reflections 223 7.1 Introduction 223 7.2 ASB Policy and Societal Changes 2007-2010 223 7.3 Experience of the Home Office Collaboration 224 7.4 Methodological Limitations 224 Chapter Eight: Conclusions 227 8.1 Introduction 227 8.2 Summary of Key Findings 227 8.2.1 Phase One - Quantifying Public Perceptions of ASB in Four Areas 227 8.2.2 Phase Two - Factors that Influence Public Perceptions of ASB 228 8.2.3 Phase Three - How Practitioners Address Public Perceptions of ASB 229 8.2.4 Overall Inferences 230 8.3 Contributions to Knowledge 231 8.4 Emerging Issues 234 8.5 Suggestions for Further Research 235 8.6 And Finally .