RELATIONAL LEARNING IN THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS: EXPLORING THE FOUNDATIONS, PRACTICES AND PURPOSES OF CLASSICAL CONFUCIAN LEARNING A dissertation submitted to the Kent State University College and Graduate School of Education, Health, and Human Services in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Richard Torgerson, Jr. December 2017 Copyright, ©2017 by Richard Torgerson, Jr. All Rights Reserved ii A dissertation written by Richard Torgerson, Jr. A.S., Salt Lake Community College, 2000 B.A., Brigham Young University, 2002 M.A., Brigham Young University, 2005 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2017 Approved by , Director, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Natasha Levinson , Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Averil McClelland , Outside Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Jeffrey Wattles Accepted by Director, School of Foundations, Leadership and Kimberly S. Schimmel Administration Dean, College and Graduate School of Education, James C. Hannon Health, and Human Services iii TORGERSON, RICHARD C., Ph.D., December 2017 Foundations, Leadership and Administration RELATIONAL LEARNING IN THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS: EXPLORING THE FOUNDATIONS, PRACTICES AND PURPOSES OF CLASSICAL CONFUCIAN LEARNING (260 pp.) Director of Dissertation: Natasha Levinson, Ph.D. The purpose of this study was to explore the conceptual strength and consistency of the term 'relational learning' in describing the principles, practices and purposes of the Classical Confucian learning paradigm put forth by Confucius in the Analects (Lunyu). With a synthesis of Classical Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, as well as numerous English language translations of the Analects and related scholarly discourse, several insights about learning in the Analects are put forward. First of all, Confucius' language concerning Heaven (Tian) and filial piety (xiao) root Confucian learning in a sincere yet hierarchical relational dynamic that influences the learning process. Second, the daily practice of ritualization (li) situates the learner as a constant observer and performer of propriety as a coping strategy in situ, with further learning contingent on the successful recognition and integration of concepts embedded within relational settings. Third, and finally, Confucius suggests that the ultimate outcomes of learning rely upon the relational capacity of the mind/heart nurtured within a given learning relationship or community. This means higher learning is a synergistic experience involving two or more entities and contingent on the emergence of 'dual-minded' respect (ren) toward the inevitable differences and misunderstandings that arise. In this light, we move beyond the term 'self- cultivation' and obtain a more nuanced view of Confucius as a teacher and a learner; ready to point out major areas of concern as well as potential coping strategies, but without turning into a path of learning oriented predominantly by the self or the other. DEDICATION FOR MELANIE iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................1 Background ..............................................................................................................2 Basic Argument ........................................................................................................3 The Meanings of Confucian Self-Cultivation ..........................................................4 Defining Relational Learning ..................................................................................6 Who was Confucius? ...............................................................................................8 What are the Analects?.............................................................................................8 Better Definitions Lead to Better Descriptions ...................................................... 11 Methodology: How Will I Address the Problem? ..................................................12 CHAPTER II: THE CONTESTED WORLD OF THE CONFUCIANS...........................14 The Weakness of History .......................................................................................15 The History of the Chinese Nation-state ................................................................16 A Review of Ancient Chinese Motivations for Learning.......................................22 Confucian Thought in Context ...................................................................23 The Confucian and Daoist Paths: An Interweaving of Ideas .....................29 History Going Forward ..........................................................................................33 CHAPTER III: CONFUCIUS AS THE IDEAL LEARNER .............................................37 Confucius in Historical Context.............................................................................38 Confucius as an Exemplary Learner ......................................................................44 The Learner Seeks, Sacrifices, Works and Teaches - But Not Too Much! 48 Confucius on Becoming a Gentleman and a Scholar.................................52 v The Students of Confucius: Is Anyone Really Good at Learning? ............55 The Personal Integrity of Confucius: Learning Li as a Maintenance of Trust ...........................................................................................................61 Introducing Ren in the Life of Confucius ..................................................69 Concluding Thoughts: On Learning and Knowing ................................................76 Conclusions: Confucius as an Example of Relational Learning ............................81 CHAPTER IV: THE FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING ..................................................82 Introduction ............................................................................................................83 Defining Xiao .........................................................................................................83 Stuck Between Heaven and Earth ..........................................................................86 Towards Reverence and Sincerity ..........................................................................90 Examples and Teachings of Xiao in the Analects ..................................................94 Tensions between Heaven and Earth .....................................................................97 The Quintessence of Tian (天) in Classical Confucian Thought .........................102 Scholars Views on Heaven .......................................................................103 Learning from a More Expansive View of Heaven ................................. 110 Examples of Spiritual Relationships in the Analects ............................... 113 Learning to Respect the Unknown ....................................................................... 114 The Power of Faith & Skepticism ........................................................................ 117 Remaining Questions ...........................................................................................124 Conclusions: Relational Learning Needs Room to Grow ....................................124 vi CHAPTER V: THE PRACTICE OF LEARNING ..........................................................129 Introduction ..........................................................................................................130 What is Li: Defining Confucian Learning Ritual .................................................135 Redefining Relational Learning: How Li Contributes to my Argument ..............138 The Analects as a Ritual Learning Text ...............................................................140 Confucius on the Practice of Learning.................................................................142 How Does One Learn Through Li? ..........................................................144 Polite Ritual as the Core Practice of Learning .........................................150 Asking Questions .....................................................................................152 Learning as a Communal Rite..................................................................156 An Example of Proper Learning ..............................................................158 Sincerity as a Learning Practice ...............................................................159 Navigating the Difficult Path of Confucian Learning ..........................................162 Learning as Proper Avoidance .............................................................................164 Examples of Failure in Learning: The Problems of Ritualization .......................170 Limitations of Learning: The Realities of Relational Ritual ...............................172 Li as a Safeguard to Learning ..............................................................................179 Ritualization (Li) as a Preparation for the Music of Compassion (Ren) ..............180 Conclusions: Li as the Practice of Relational Learning .......................................183 CHAPTER VI: THE PURPOSE OF LEARNING ..........................................................187 The Core Virtue of Learning according to Confucius..........................................188 vii Defining Ren ............................................................................................188 Ren as Higher Learning .......................................................................................191 Living