Christian mysticism liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist.[1][3] The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.[3] 2 Definition Mystic marriage of Christ and the Church. Life of Francis of Assisi by José Benlliure y Gil Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in 2.1 Presence the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as: studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic [T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief visions of the soul’s mystical union with God to simple and practice that concerns the preparation for, prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a Divina). direct and transformative presence of God.[4] 1 Etymology 2.2 Presence versus experience McGinn argues that “presence” is more accurate than “Mysticism” is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning “to “union”, since not all mystics spoke of union with God, conceal”,[1] and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, mean- and since many visions and miracles were not necessar- ing 'an initiate'. In the Hellenistic world, a “mystikos” was ily related to union. He also argues that we should speak an initiate of a mystery religion. “Mystical” referred to of “consciousness” of God’s presence, rather than of “ex- secret religious rituals[1] and use of the word lacked any perience”, since mystical activity is not simply about the direct references to the transcendental.[2] sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly In early Christianity the term “mystikos” referred to about three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or ...new ways of knowing and loving based contemplative.[3] The biblical dimension refers to “hid- on states of awareness in which God becomes den” or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures.[1][3] The present in our inner acts.[4] 1 2 3 DEVELOPMENT William James popularized the use of the term “religious tic’s part and—especially—on the part of those experience” in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious whom the mystic has affected.[4] Experience.[5] It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies Other critics point out that the stress on “experience” is knowledge.[1] accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, instead Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of “reli- of the shared life on the community. It also fails to dis- gious experience” further back to the German theologian tinguish between episodic experience, and mysticism as Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that a process that is embedded in a total religious matrix of religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and of “religious experience” was used by Schleiermacher to practices.[7] defend religion against the growing scientific and secular Richard King also points to disjunction between “mystical critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of experience” and social justice:[8] which William James was the most influential.[6] The privatisation of mysticism - that is, 2.3 Personal transformation the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experi- ences - serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.[8] Transformation has particular importance in the theology of Origen.[9] 2.4 Social constructionism Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is often shaped by cultural issues. For instance, Carolyn Walker Bynum has shown how, in the late Middle Ages, miracles attending the taking of the Eucharist were not simply symbolic of the Passion story, but served as vindication of the mystic’s theolog- ical orthodoxy by proving that the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas, such as the Cathar rejection of the material world as evil, contrary to orthodox teaching that God took on human flesh and remained sinless.[10] Thus, the nature of mystical experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. 3 Development Resurrection of Jesus, Matthias Grünewald. The idea of mystical realities has been widely held in McGinn’s emphasis on the transformation that occurs Christianity since the second century AD, referring not through mystical activity relates to this idea of “presence” simply to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that instead of “experience": their rituals and even their scriptures have hidden (“mys- tical”) meanings.[4] This is why the only test that Christianity The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine has known for determining the authenticity of was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the a mystic and her or his message has been that term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical of personal transformation, both on the mys- contemplation.[2] 3.2 Gospels 3 In subsequent centuries, especially as Christian apolo- getics began to use Greek philosophy to explain Chris- tian ideas, Neoplatonism became an influence on Chris- tian mystical thought and practice via such authors as Augustine of Hippo and Origen. 3.1 Jewish antecedents Jewish spirituality in the period before Jesus was highly corporate and public, based mostly on the worship ser- vices of the synagogues, which included the reading and interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recita- tion of prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus, private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and by the scriptures (e.g., the use of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers often recalled historical events just as much as they recalled their own immediate needs.[11] Of special importance are the following concepts:[12] • Da'at (knowledge) and Chokhmah (wisdom), which come from years of reading, praying and meditating the scriptures; • Shekhinah, the presence of God in our daily lives, the superiority of that presence to earthly wealth, and the pain and longing that come when God is ab- sent; • the hiddenness of God, which comes from our in- ability to survive the full revelation of God’s glory Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and 3 and which forces us to seek to know God through apostles by Carracci, 1594 faith and obedience; • “Torah-mysticism”, a view of God’s laws as the cen- the Crucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after his tral expression of God’s will and therefore as worthy Resurrection are two of the most central to Christian the- object not only of obedience but also of loving med- ology; but Jesus’ conception, in which the Holy Spirit itation and Torah study; and overshadows Mary, and his Transfiguration, in which he is briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become im- • poverty, an ascetic value, based on the apocalyptic portant images for meditation. Moreover, many of the expectation of God’s impending arrival, that char- Christian texts build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such acterized the Jewish people’s reaction to being op- as chokhmah, shekhinah.[14] pressed by a series of foreign empires. But different writers present different images and ideas. The Synoptic Gospels (in spite of their many differences) In Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, introduce several important ideas, two of which are re- Da'at became gnosis, and poverty became an important lated to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/gnosis by component of monasticism.[13] virtue of being mental acts: purity of heart, in which we will to see in God’s light; and repentance, which involves 3.2 Gospels allowing God to judge and then transform us. Another key idea presented by the Synoptics is the desert, which is used as a metaphor for the place where we meet God The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the found- [15] ing narrative of the Christian church, provide many key in the poverty of our spirit. stories and concepts that become important for Chris- The Gospel of John focuses on God’s glory in his use of tian mystics in all later generations: practices such as light imagery and in his presentation of the Cross as a the Eucharist, baptism and the Lord’s Prayer all be- moment of exaltation; he also sees the Cross as the exam- come activities that take on importance for both their ple of agape love, a love which is not so much an emo- ritual and symbolic values. Other scriptural narratives tion as a willingness to serve and care for others. But present scenes that become the focus of meditation: in stressing love, John shifts the goal of spiritual growth 4 3 DEVELOPMENT away from knowledge/gnosis, which he presents more in 3.4 Hellenism terms of Stoic ideas about the role of reason as being the underlying principle of the universe and as the spiri- The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism tual principle within all people. Although John does not centers on Origen and Clement of Alexandria. Clement follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle makes was an early Christian humanist who argued that rea- union with the divine possible for humanity, it is an idea son is the most important aspect of human existence and that later Christian writers develop. Later generations that gnosis (not something we can attain by ourselves, will also shift back and forth between whether to follow but the gift of Christ) helps us find the spiritual reali- the Synoptics in stressing knowledge or John in stressing ties that are hidden behind the natural world and within love.[16] the scriptures.