ABSTRACT PORTABLE RESPONSIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 1957 TO 1982: A HISTORICAL CONTENT ANALYSIS USING FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS Bettylynne F. Gregg, Ed.D. Department of Educational Technology, Research and Assessment Northern Illinois University, 2015 Rebecca Butler, Director This historical content analysis study examined portable responsive instructional materials used by United States teachers and students in primary, secondary, and higher education instructional settings for the period of 1957 through 1982—the beginning of the space race with the stimulus of educational funding from the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) to the introduction of classroom computers into the mainstream education population. During this period, a plethora of instructional materials was implemented in classrooms, which supported the audiovisual movement to improve performance and knowledge. This study focused on the pedagogical and functional uses of instructional materials from the specified period of history. Instructional materials included in this qualitative study provided a response from or feedback to the participant through some form of communication—a screen, display, or other mode of communication. The physical nature of the studied instructional materials was small, lightweight, and portable, and each was used collaboratively or individually for instructional purposes in an educational environment. With this definition in mind, certain materials that were important to the audiovisual movement, such as movie projectors and cameras, were not included in this study. Instructional materials from corporate training were not included in this study with the exception of materials that crossed over from the corporate arena to the educational environment. Pedagogical and functional frameworks of identified instructional materials from 1957 to 1982 provided a foundation from which to compare contemporary instructional materials and devices to those of the past, to predict pedagogical purposes, and to support current integration of instructional materials such as handheld devices into the classroom based on historical information gathered in this study. Analysis of the instructional materials was based on audiovisual codes found in the literature of the time. To further analyze the data gathered, a failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) method was adapted and applied to determine the success or failure of specified functionality of the identified instructional materials. NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY DEKALB, ILLINOIS AUGUST 2015 PORTABLE RESPONSIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 1957 TO 1982: A HISTORICAL CONTENT ANALYSIS USING FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS BY BETTYLYNNE F. GREGG © 2015 Bettylynne F. Gregg A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, RESEARCH AND ASSESSMENT Doctoral Director: Rebecca Butler ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful to many people who helped me through my dissertation journey and encouraged my desire for learning. I am thankful to my husband and life partner, Jim, for his support and reassurances that empowered me to complete my educational endeavors. My children, John and Julie, have supported me through the dissertation process in ways they may never realize. I hope, through my experience, they learn to be life-long learners and to develop a “can do” attitude. My committee chair, Dr. Rebecca Butler, provided support and encouragement throughout this historical research project. Our meetings were always informative, fun, and enlightening. I appreciated her ideas, resources, and support. Dr. Rhonda Robinson provided insight and historical perspectives that enhanced this research. Dr. Darryl Draper encouraged adapting the failure mode and effect analysis as an analytical tool used in this study. I appreciate my committee’s willingness to teach and learn with me. A special thank you goes to my classmates Stacey and Catherine for reading, proofing, listening, sharing, and for being my “end of the semester celebration” cohorts. I am thankful for knowing Brian Szymanski and for his positive energy and encouraging words when classes were demanding. Special thanks to Gail Jacky, at Northern Illinois University’s Writing Center, for ongoing support, writing ideas, and quick turnarounds for editing suggestions. Her assistance has made me a stronger and a more confident writer. Thank you to Ro Maresh, a true friend, who read each chapter thoroughly for content and understanding. Her attention to details impressed iii me, as she always found detail that needed revising. Lastly, I am grateful to Carol Abrahamson for her role in the final edits and formatting of this study. DEDICATION I dedicate this study to my parents, Ernest and Meryle Fincher, for all their love and support, for inspiring me to do my best, and teaching me that I “can do” anything that I set my mind to. For my dad, who taught me how to use a slide rule and encouraged curiosity. For my mom, who by her example, taught me to be a life-long learner. My parents instilled in me the importance of education from early preschool through college and beyond; for that I am thankful. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………. xii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………..…………………. xiii LIST OF APPENDICES…………………………………………………...………………. xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……………………………………………………...………. xvii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….…… 1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………..…………. 6 Terms and Definitions……………………………………………………...………. 8 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………….………. 18 Background of the Study………………………………………………..…………. 18 Research Questions………………………………………………………...………. 20 Significance of the Study………………………………………..…………………. 22 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………. 22 Theoretical Framework………………………………………………….…………. 24 Organization of the Dissertation………………………………………...…………. 26 2. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………….... 29 Content Analysis……………………………………………………………...……. 31 Content Analysis Approaches………………………………………………...……. 34 vi Chapter Page The Content Analysis Process………………………………………………..……. 37 Content Analysis Process as Applied to This Study……………………….………. 40 Content Analysis Concerns……………………………………………………...…. 45 Use of Images as Data…………………………………………………………...…. 47 Content Analysis—Working with the Data……………………………..…………. 48 Historiography…………………………………………………………………..…. 52 Ethical Considerations………………………………………………..……………. 54 Data Collection…………………………………………………………….………. 56 Primary Sources……………………………………………………………. 57 Secondary Sources…………………………………………………………. 59 Procedures for Validity…………………………………………………….………. 61 External and Internal Criticism……………………….……………………. 62 Authenticity and Accuracy…………………………………...……………. 64 Tools……………………………………………………………………………….. 65 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………. 66 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis…………………………………………………. 68 Summary…………………………………………………………………...………. 69 3. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY—THE PAST……………………….…….………. 70 History of Audiovisual Instruction/Communications: A Precursor to Educational Technology……………………………………………………………………...…. 72 History of Educational Technology through Early 1980s………..…..……………. 78 History of Professional Journals………………………………………………...…. 81 vii Chapter Page Professional Journals—Audiovisual……………………………….………. 81 Professional Journals—Educational/Instructional Technology………....…. 82 Summary……………………………………………………………………...……. 83 4. HISTORICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS……………………….……. 84 Education Interviewee Information………………………………………..………. 85 Interactive, Real Objects, and Transparencies Codes………...……………………. 87 Interactive Code………………………………………………..……..……. 88 Interactive—Programmed Instruction Category…………...………. 88 Programmed Instruction—Audio Card Readers Subcategory……………………….………………………. 92 Programmed Instruction—Craig Readers Subcategory....... 102 Programmed Instruction—Audio-Based Devices Subcategory……………………………………….………. 104 Programmed Instruction—Game-Like Devices Subcategory…………………………………………….…. 109 PRIM ’57-’82 Programmed Instruction Summary……..…. 131 Interactive—Learning Materials Category…………………...……. 131 Interactive—Instructional Kits Category………………………..…. 137 Interactive—Learning Games Category……………………...……. 140 Interactive—Response Systems Category…………………………. 146 Interactive—Instructional Systems Category…………………...…. 157 Interactive—Computers Category…………………………………. 167 Real Objects Code……………………………………………………….…. 169 viii Chapter Page Real Objects—Slide Rules Category………………………………. 169 Real Objects—Time/Clocks Category…………………....…..……. 172 Real Objects—Calculators Category……………………...…….…. 175 Real Objects—Telephone Packages Category………………......…. 178 Transparencies Code…………………………………………………….…. 179 Summary………………………………………………………………………...…. 183 5. FUNCTIONAL FEATURES OF PRIM ’57-’82 OBJECTS…………………….…..…. 185 Administration…………………………………………………………………..…. 190 Collaborative……………………………………………………………….………. 192 Learning Games Category…………………………………………………. 192 Instructional Systems Category……………………………………………. 194 Curriculum—General, Mathematics/Arithmetic, and Reading………...…………. 195 Curriculum—General…………………………………………………...…. 196 Programmed Instruction—Audio-Based Devices Subcategory……. 196 Programmed Instruction – Game-Like Devices Subcategory…..…. 197 Instructional Kits Category…………………………………...……. 198 Curriculum—Mathematics/Arithmetic………………………….…………. 198 Programmed Instruction—Game-Like Devices Subcategory…..…. 199 Learning Materials Category………………………………………. 201