Kikokikona Hawaiʻi ULUKAU: THE HAWAIIAN ELECTRONIC LIBRARY Help The voices of Eden: a history of Hawaiian language studies Extras... Book | Hardcopy | Search | Contact The Voices of Eden [ Original Images ] [ Detach Text ] [ No Highlighting ] The text given here is complete but in a rough layout. Use the text to quickly check the page and then view the original page for the correct layout. THE VOICES OF EDEN A History of Hawaiian Language Studies THE VOICES OF EDEN A History of Hawaiian Language Studies Albert J. Schütz University of Hawai'i Press Honolulu © 1994 University of Hawai'i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 94 96 97 98 99 00 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schütz, Albert J., 1936– The voices of Eden : a history of Hawaiian language studies / Albert J. Schütz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–8248–1637–4 1. Hawaiian language—History. I. Title. PL6441.S38 1994 499'.4—dc20 944–30968 CIP Plate 7.1, The Alphabet, is used with the permission of the Mission Houses Museum Library. Camera-ready copy was prepared by the author. University of Hawai'i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. For Renée Heyum, who has always been a help and an inspiration for any student of Pacific languages and cultures CONTENTS Acknowledgments xv Introduction xvii 1 Background 1 Connections 3 The Noble Savage 3 The Study of Language in the Eighteenth Century 6 Evangelical Revival Movements in England and America 8 Notes 11 2 The Noble Savage Speaks 13 Background 14 The Sound and Sounds of Hawaiian 15 Vocabulary 19 Grammar 22 Reasons for the Judgments 24 More Recent Judgments 26 Notes 29 3 The Early Collections 31 Motives 32 Sources 33 Compilers of the Word Lists 34 Anderson 34 Samwell 35 Beresford 35 Martínez 37 Santeliz es Pablo 37 Quimper 37 Lisiansky 38 Campbell 38 Gaimard/Arago 38 vii viii Contents Chamisso 39 Ingraham 40 Means of Communicating 40 The Tahitian Connection 41 Mutual Language Learning 42 Resident Interpreters 44 Artificial Languages 45 Pidgin Hawaiian? 47 Notes 50 4 Reducing the Language to Writing: Explorers' and Traders' Alphabets 53 Anderson 55 Anderson as Linguist 57 The Tahitian Pronunciation Key 60 Samwell 65 Quimper 65 Campbell 67 Gaimard 69 Notes 71 5 Consonant Confusion 76 T or K? 76 L or R? 79 P or B? 80 V or W? 81 Conclusion 83 Notes 83 6 The Cornwall Connection: 3s, 8s, and Noah Webster 85 Notes 95 7 Fixing the Letters: Missionary Efforts 1820–1826 98 1820–1825: An Interim Alphabet 99 The Vowels 102 The Tahitian Connection Again 105 Influence of the Māori Grammar and Dictionary 107 The First Printing 108 Contents ix A Surfeit of Consonants 111 T or K? 114 L or R? 116 V or W? 119 Alphabet by Election 122 Aftermath 126 Summary 127 Notes 128 8 The Missing Elements: Problems with Glottal Stops and Long Vowels 134 The Missing Macron 134 The Latin Precedent 135 The Problem with Accent 136 The Māori Model 138 Shortage of Type 139 And One Consonant Too Few 141 Summary 146 Notes 149 9 The Printed Word 153 Ka Palapala 154 Methodology 159 Materials 162 Webster's Speller 163 Supply and Demand 166 Inflation and Barter 167 Motives, Media, and Messages 169 Censorship? 170 Newspapers 171 Success? 173 Conflict between Oral and Written Traditions 180 Conclusion: Power and Promises 181 Notes 182 10 Take My Word for It 185 How to Add Words 185 The Earliest Evidence 187 Use of an Existing Word, with Expansion of Meaning 190 x Contents True Borrowing: Total Adaptation 191 Consonants and Vowels 191 Syllable Structure 193 Adaptation, with a Shift 195 Loanblends 196 Later Lists 196 Personal Names as Borrowings 197 Loanwords for Bible Translation 198 Choice of Added Vowels 201 The Actual Patterning 201 Summary 203 Notes 203 11 From Word List to Dictionary 206 Hawaiian Vocabulary as a Reflection of Culture 206 General Terms versus Specific Terms 207 Literal Meaning versus Figurative Meaning: Kaona 209 The Early Word Lists: Imperfect Mirrors of Culture 210 Folk Etymology 212 Vocabularies and Dictionaries after Mission Contact 213 Loomis n.d. 214 Ellis 1825 214 Andrews 1836 216 Chamisso ca. 1837 219 Full-Scale Dictionaries 220 Andrews 1865 221 Andrews-Parker 1922 225 Judd, Pukui, and Stokes 1945 228 Pukui and Elbert 1957-1986 230 Kent 1986 236 Conclusion 236 Notes 237 12 Hawaiian Grammars 241 The Classical Model 242 Parts of Speech 243 Systems Connected with Nouns and Pronouns 244 Case 244 Gender 244 Number 245 Contents xi Person 246 Systems Connected with Verbs 246 Mood 246 Tense/Aspect 246 Systems Connected with Adjectives 247 Syntax 247 What Additional Tools were Available? 248 Marsden 1812 249 Martin 1817 249 Kendall and Lee 1820 251 Davies 1823 252 Hawaiian Grammars 254 Prelude: 'Ōpūkaha'ia 256 Ruggles 1819 256 Bingham 1823 257 Ellis 1826 258 Chamisso 1837 260 Andrews 1838 262 Hale 1846 263 Andrews 1854 266 Alexander 1864 270 Newbrand 1951 273 Knappert 1954 274 Pukui and Elbert 1957 275 Elbert and Pukui 1979 277 The State of the Art 281 Notes 283 13 English for Speakers of Hawaiian 289 English Schools for Hawaiians 291 Materials and Methodology 293 A Clash of Structures 295 A Revival of English Schools 298 English Explained in Hawaiian 298 What Kind of English? 300 Notes 302 14 Hawaiian for Speakers of English 303 How the Missionaries Learned Hawaiian 304 Sybil Bingham's Primer 306 xii Contents Primers as a Reflection of Attitudes 307 Early Twentieth-Century Primers 309 Atcherley 1930 309 Judd 1939 310 WWII and a Change in Methodology 311 Elbert 1951 312 English as a Second Language and the Hawaiian Language-Teaching Workshop 314 Brown 1963 315 Kahananui 1965 315 Kahananui and Anthony 1970 316 Kamanā and Wilson 1977 317 Hopkins 1992 317 Conclusion 319 Notes 320 15 Hawaiian and Polynesian 322 Early Comparisons of Polynesian Languages 323 Languages as Curiosities 324 Polynesian Languages and the Birth of Comparative Linguistics 324 Lost Tribes and Sunken Consonants 325 Language versus Dialect 328 Mutual Intelligibility 329 Shared Vocabulary 331 Subgrouping 332 Glottochronology: Time-depth Studies 335 Conclusion 336 Notes 337 16 Language and Power: The Past, Present, and Future of Hawaiian Language Policy 339 Language Choice 340 The Early Period 340 The Transitional Period 341 Language Imposition 344 Threats to Power 347 A Remedy for Nativism? 350 The Forbidden Language 351 The Moribund Language 352 The Resultant Language 354 Contents xiii The Changed Curriculum 355 Resuscitation 356 Hawaiian Language Teaching in Primary and Secondary Schools 357 Hawaiian Language Teaching at the University Level 359 Renaissance 361 The Media 362 Immersion Programs: Hope for the Future? 365 Pūnana Leo 365 Immersion Programs in the Public School System 367 Changing the Language 369 The Search for Standard Hawaiian 370 The Académie 372 Spelling 372 New Words 373 Summary 375 Notes 377 Annotated Bibliography 383 Index 494 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their financial aid that allowed me to research and write this book, it is a pleasure to thank the following organizations within the University of Hawai'i: the Research Relations Fund, the Dean's Research Support Fund, and the Social Science Research Institute. For their help with my quest to learn more of 'Ōpūkaha'ia, who was not only the inspiration for the Congregational Mission to Hawai'i, but also the first in a long list of people who wrote about Hawaiian grammar, I should like to thank the following people and organizations: Samuel and Nancy Martin, who assisted with my pilgrimage to Cornwall, Connecticut, the place where 'Ōpūkaha'ia worked and died; the Cornwall Historical Society (Michael R. Gannett, President), Peter Marshall Hammond of the United Church of Christ (First Church of Christ, Second Congregational Church, Cornwall). The following people helped me by answering questions about their particular language specialties: Katherine Klingebiel and Jean M. Toyama (French); John E. Crean, Jr. (German); Anatole Lyovin (Greek); Greg Lee Carter, Emily A. Hawkins, Noenoe Moan, Puakea Nogelmeier, No'eau Warner, and Laiana Wong (Hawaiian); Richard A. Benton and Kerry E. Stevens (Māori); Austin Dias (Spanish); Robert J. Ball and Miriam E. Sinclair (Latin). For answering my questions about various aspects of Hawaiian history, I should like to thank Agnes Conrad, Edgar Knowlton, Robert J. Morris, and James D. Rumford. The following people read part or all of the manuscript at various stages of its completion, and helped immeasurably by spotting errors and suggesting improvements in style: Wendy Arbeit, Elizabeth Bushnell, O. A. Bushnell, John P. Charlot, Noenoe Moan, Robert J. Morris, Kenneth L. Rehg, and James D. Rumford. I should also like to thank my colleagues Michael L. Forman, George W. Grace, and Donald M. Topping for always being willing to discuss ideas and offer suggestions for improving various pieces of the manuscript. xv xvi Acknowledgments For helping me face the challenge of producing computer-generated, camera-ready copy for the press, thanks are due Karen L. Ah Mai, Byron W. Bender, Robert W. Hsu, and Johnny On. As with all my previous research, this project would not have been possible without the excellent collection and staff of both the Hawaiian and Pacific Collections at Hamilton Library, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. In particular, I should like to thank Renée Heyum, Emeritus Pacific Curator; Lynette T. Furuhashi, Pacific Librarian; Nancy J. Morris, Charlot Curator; and Karen Peacock, Pacific Curator. Special thanks are due Chieko Tachihata, Hawaiian Curator, for the invaluable help she provided by reading several drafts of this bibliography, not only weeding out inconsistencies, but also suggesting many useful new entries.