A Critical Analysis of the Royal Air Force Air Superiority Campaign in India, Burma and Malaya, 1941-1945 PETER NORMAN PRESTON-HOUGH M.A. B.A. (Hons) A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 4th April 2013. This work or any part thereof has not previously been presented in any form to the University or to any other body whether for the purposes of assessment, publication or for any other purpose (unless otherwise indicated). Save for any express acknowledgments, references and/or bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual content of the work is the result of my own efforts and of no other person. The right of Peter Norman Preston-Hough to be identified as author of this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by the author. Signature P.N. Preston-Hough……………………………………….. Date 4th April 2013. i ABSTRACT The conflict in the Far East between 1941 and 1945 is occasionally referred to as the “Forgotten War” in Britain and this description extends to the way the campaign’s air war has been analysed. However, the role of air power in Burma was vitally important to the campaign, in particular the attainment of air superiority in order to facilitate supply and close support operations. The foundation of these operations was dependent on the Allies achieving and maintaining air superiority and latterly air supremacy over the Japanese. This thesis will analyse how the Allies lost air superiority during the initial exchanges, and then how technical and material difficulties were overcome before air superiority was won in 1944 and air supremacy was gained in 1945. It will analyse the importance of the RAF’s tactics, early warning systems, equipment, training and counter-air offensive in the theatre between 1941 and 1945. Furthermore, the thesis will demonstrate how Japanese industry, their war in the Pacific, and their use of air power in Burma ultimately affected the air war’s eventual outcome. The study will examine current historiography to question and corroborate existing views, as well as to reveal new information not previously published. ii Contents Title Page i Abstract ii Contents Page iii Foreword and Acknowledgements iv Explanatory Notes ix Principal Allied Commanders iii Glossary xiv Introduction 1 Chapter One The Early Warning Organisation 11 Chapter Two Aircrew, Tactics and Aircraft 108 Chapter Three The Counter-Air Campaign 195 Chapter Four Japan’s War, Industry and Strategy 280 Conclusion 330 Appendices 340 Bibliography 349 iii Foreword and Acknowledgements When I started to research this thesis I must admit I had a total ignorance of the air war in Burma and the Far East. Apart from knowing a little bit about Buffalos over Singapore, air transport operations and seeing some film footage of Hurricanes dropping bombs near to the Imphal Plain, I had no idea of the long and involved air campaign which was crucial to the Allies’ eventual success in Burma. As my research progressed and the themes developed, I realised that the efforts of Allied service personnel stationed a very long way from home are overshadowed in academic terms by more domestic events. Bookshelves are full of academic re-appraisals of the Battle of Britain or the Strategic Air Offensive, but there is nothing about the R.A.F.’s long-range bombing operations over Burma, or maritime reconnaissance sorties over the Indian Ocean. This thesis is, to the best of knowledge, the first academic work about one aspect of the air war in Burma and I sincerely hope it will inspire other researchers to explore the subject not only to further historical knowledge but also to honour the Far East service personnel who were stationed a long way from home in a country with violent extremes of weather, fighting an often ruthless and relentless enemy. It is said that writing and researching a PhD thesis is a lonely and personal activity but I would say that is not totally true. Without the help and support of so many people a project like this would not ‘take off and fly’ so it is only right and proper to acknowledge the following people: Thank you to the staff at the National Archive in Kew for finding the massive number of documents I have required for my research. Thanks are due to the staff at Churchill College Cambridge University Archive Centre for their help in producing iv Viscount Slim’s papers and, in addition, the College’s domestic staff for their assistance during my visits. Thank you to the staff at Christ Church College Oxford University Archive Centre for their forbearance producing the Portal Papers and the staff at Northwich library for obtaining obscure books from all over the country without once blinking their eyes. My everlasting gratitude goes to Peter Elliot, the Keeper of Records at the Royal Air Force Museum in Hendon. Peter has been, without doubt, one of the most influential people involved in this and previous projects, always ready to field my questions or queries with good humour and expert knowledge. Special thanks must be offered to Professor Malcolm Wanklyn for proof reading the thesis. Thank you to my friends and acquaintances, far too numerous to name, who have provided support, practical advice, and listening ears for my tales of triumph and tragedy. Thank you to Professor John Buckley who supervised this thesis with good humour, tact, understanding and sympathy. I have been very lucky to have had John as my supervisor and friend, and shall always be in his debt. Finally to my family, past and present, thank you for your support and encouragement, but in particular my wife, Susan, who has played a huge role in putting up with absences, despair, joy and frustration to ensure this thesis was completed. All success I achieve will be yours. To you all, a sincere and heartfelt thank you. v Explanatory Notes 1. To maintain consistency 1940s place names will be used, for example, Siam instead of Thailand, Ceylon instead of Sri Lanka. 2. Japanese records. This thesis has made extensive reference to Christopher Shores’ Air War for Burma. Mr Shores was assisted by two Japanese historians, Hiroshi Ichimura and Doctor Yasuo Izawa who had access to official Japanese records and their findings have been used in preparing the day to day summaries of Japanese operations and aircraft losses for this book. Therefore when ‘Japanese records’ are referred to in this thesis the information will have been taken from Air War for Burma, and suitable references will be made to the relevant page or pages in the footnotes. 3. Aircraft Nomenclature. British aircraft will be referred to by their name, e.g. Spitfire. United States aircraft initially will be referred to by the company code and name, e.g. P-51 Mustang, and after that by its name only. The exception to this will be the P-40 whose different marks were referred to by different names (Warhawk, Tomahawk, Kittyhawk) so to maintain consistency the term P-40 will be retained. The American C-47 transport aircraft was known in U.S. service as the Skytrain, but more commonly in R.A.F. service as the Dakota, and this name will be used in the thesis. Japanese aircraft will be referred to in the first instance by its company code and Allied code name, e.g. Ki-43 Oscar, and from then by its official Allied code name only. The following list shows a table of all the Japanese aircraft mentioned in the thesis, giving their parent company, Japanese names, Allied codenames (when given) and purposes: Company/Code Japanese Name Allied name Purpose Kawanishi N1K1-J Shiden (Violet Lightning) George Single-engine fighter Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu (Dragon Killer) Nick Twin-engine fighter Kawasaki Ki-48 Lily Twin-engine bomber Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien (Flying Swallow) Tony Single- engine fighter Kawasaki Ki-100 Single-engine fighter Mitsubishi A5M Claude Single-engine fighter Mitsubishi A6M Zeke or Zero Single-engine fighter vi Mitsubishi G4M Betty Twin-engine bomber Mitsubishi J2M Raiden (Thunderbolt) Jack Single-engine fighter Mitsubishi Ki-21 Sally Twin-engine bomber Mitsubishi Ki-46 Dinah Twin-engine reconnaissance Nakajima Ki-27 Nate Single-engine fighter Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (Peregrine Falcon) Oscar Single-engine fighter Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki (Demon) Tojo Single-engine fighter Nakajima Ki-100 Donryu (Storm Dragon) Helen Twin-engine bomber Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate (Gale) Frank Single-engine fighter 4. Japanese Army Air Force Organisation. The following table gives a guide to the J.A.A.F. operational organisation as described in the thesis. Kokugun (Air Army) Exercised the highest administrative and operational authority. Hikoshidan (Flying Division) Coordinated operations over a given area. Hikodan (Air Brigade) Each Hikoshidan controlled two or more Hikodan. Flexible in composition and size, mixed fighter and bomber formation with a small H.Q. flight of reconnaissance or photo reconnaissance aircraft. General strength of three or four Hikosentai plus ancillary units. Hikosentai (Flying Operational Unit) Basic operational unit of the J.A.A.F. with a strength of 27 aircraft. Name often shortened to Sentai. Hikochutai (Flying Company-Squadron) Three Hikochutai to a Hikosentai, each with a strength of nine aircraft. Name often shortened to Chutai. vii Hentai (Section) Smallest tactical formation in J.A.A.F., flight of between three to five aircraft. The approximate comparative structure of the combatants’ flying units is as follows: R.A.F. J.A.A.F. U.S.A.A.F.