On the Origin of Forces Theory of Universal Force and its Application to Physical Problems A personal view by J. Rautio into the field of physics from the outside. Abstract. This article introduces a 100% electromagnetic view of the world. It is a fractal world, in which similar phenomena and structures appear at all scales and, at least in principle, there is no boundary between microscopic and macroscopic worlds. This theory is also a theory of bosons, fermions, matter, mass, inertia, and quantization. Interactions of particles and their structure are largely based on the Riemann zeta function. Also, the so-called 1/f-noise is an integral part of the theory. This is a completely new view, but its novelty means, in most cases, new physical insight of existing mathematical models. It is not in conflict with experimental observations. In other words, the new view demands a re-interpretation of the “cornerstone” experiments supporting relativity. The theory produces new insights into all branches of physic. For this reason, expressing dissident proposals for several branches of science is unavoidable. In this work mathematical modelling is of qualitative nature. The emphasis is on simple physical understanding rather than quantitative studies. Exact numerical models are not important for the story to be told here. More important is to give a general view which makes understandable a number of physical phenomena that presently are not considered to be related. Science prides itself of being self-corrective, but from an outsider's perspective, this simply is not true. Theoretical physics and cosmology have become so weird that only one conclusion can be drawn; they have lost their way. No correction is in sight. The following article is written in the spirit of the advice given by Richard Feynman: “Learn from science that you must doubt the experts. As a matter of fact, I can also define science another way: Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts.” For an outsider, it is easy to see that many disciplines of science are in need of radical rethinking. In what follows we pinpoint the events that, in our opinion, led physics and cosmology astray. Content. The first part of the article contains a critique of modern physics, our suggestions fora new view and the existing support to them, mostly from eminent scientists advocating dissent from mainstream beliefs. The second part, applications (p.87), gives explanations, based on the new view, to many poorly understood experimental results or phenomena from various branches of science. There is another quotation from Feynman: “The main problem in the study of the fundamental particles today is to discover what are the correct representations for the description of nature. At the present time, we guess that for the electron it is enough to specify its momentum and spin. … Will the electron’s momentum still be the right thing with which to describe nature?” This article tries to show the reasons why the answer to this question must be “ No”. Critique Occult Qualities in Physics Newton started a new way of thinking in science — the relationship between causes and effects. He set up the mathematical machinery to describe this relationship in a continuous manner. The Aristotelian / Scholastic natural philosophy was rejected. Mathematical equations and functions became the scientific explanation and the explanation was verified by making precise predictions based on those equations. The Principia was Newton’s study of “the motion that results from any force whatever and of the forces that are required for any motion whatever.” In the case of Keplerian motion it appeared to be an attractive force. Newton postulated an attractive force whose mode of operation could not be reduced to mechanical pressure or impact — a force, that is, apparently acting at a distance. His response to the problem was simply to shelve the problem of the intrinsic qualitative character of gravitational force — “I do not feign hypotheses” — and to insist that it was sufficient for scientific explanation to have a mathematical model which enables us to predict celestial motions. 1 Not everybody was satisfied with this. Huygens and Leibniz found that the adoption of attraction by natural philosophers would bring about a reversion to the “occult qualities” of Scholasticism. “Gravity, interpreted as an “innate attraction” between every pair of particles of matter, was an occult quality in the same sense as the scholastics’ “tendency to fall” had been. Therefore, while the standards of corpusculiarism remained in effect, the search for a mechanical explanation of gravity was one of the most challenging problems for those who accepted the Principia as paradigm. Newton devoted much attention to it and so did many of his eighteencentury successors. The only apparent option was to reject Newton’s theory for its failure to explain gravity, and that alternative, too, was widely adopted. Yet neither of these views ultimately triumphed. Unable either to practice science without the Principia or to make that work conform to the corpuscular standards of the seventeenth century, scientists gradually accepted the view that gravity was indeed innate.” [Thomas Kuhn] In modern physics the concept of charge is of occult nature. Another oddity is the “isolated system”. In physics a system is a portion of the physical universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment, which in analysis is ignored except for its small perturbations on the system. The cut between system and the world is a free choice, generally made to simplify the analysis as much as possible. An isolated system is one which has negligible interaction with its environment. The two concepts, attractive force and isolated system, are connected. Atomic physics is a good example. This branch of physics studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. In the Bohr atom the electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The centripetal force is equal to the Coulomb attractive force… If a dynamical system of particles is isolated, there must be attractive forces to hold it together. The particles must have an innate property which causes them to experience an attractive force when near other particles. This leads directly to the idea that subatomic particles are sources of force fields, and this is no different from gravity as an “innate attraction.” Modern Physics is Useless in Biology Biologists once wanted to show living cells under the microscope to R. Feynman. “They had some plant cells in there, and you could see some little green spots called chloroplasts (they make sugar when light shines on them) circulating around. I looked at them and then looked up: “How do they circulate? What pushes them around, I asked. Nobody knew. It turned out that it was not understood at that time.” That is a relevant question still. Today we know that living cells are extremely complicated in their structure and inner processes. We know that many of the constituent molecules of the cell are in orderly and continuous motion. Why do they move? Brownian motion and thermal fluctuations are not nearly adequate explanations. Ilja Prigogine has recognized living organisms as open systems and “dissipative structures”. According to his theory, dissipative structures not only maintain themselves in a stable state far from equilibrium, but may even evolve. When the flow of energy through them changes, they may go through points of instability and trans-form themselves into new structures. Living organisms maintain themselves in a state far from equilibrium. Chemical and thermal equilibrium exists when the processes of a living cell come to a halt. In other words, an organism in equilibrium is a dead organism. This is consistent with one of the basic considerations of this paper, namely that there are no isolated systems in nature. In particular, all particles are open systems; they have exchange of energy with the rest of universe. The complexity of life emerges from the complex interaction between particles. We will explain how this complexity comes about. Supremacy of Hamiltonian Systems Niels Bohr's work created quantum mechanics, which is the foundation of modern quantum physics. Its theories and equations are many, but there is one unifying theme connecting all of these theories. The evolution of a physical system over time (as well as the steady states of that system) is controlled by a single object, the Hamiltonian of that system, which can often be interpreted as the total energy of any given state in that system. The Hamiltonian / Lagrangian formalism has ubiquitous presence in modern physics. It is now generally accepted that all real physical processes, which are thought to be of negligible dissipation, can be expressed in Hamiltonian form. 2 Equations of motion or field equations in fundamental theories derive from the variational principles (namely, the Hamilton principle). Theoreticians tend to assume that the theory is all set when the Lagrangian is written. This means that physics is stuck with occult qualities, namely closed or isolated systems and, consequently, attractive forces, even though the vast majority of physicists don't see it that way, because they are practicing what Thomas Kuhn called “normal science”. Closed systems, “point particles”, and the stubborn cling to Hamiltonian concepts have plagued physics for ages. J. Clerk Maxwell wrote in his book Matter And Motion: “In all scientific