Constructing the post-Soviet Armenian National Habitus: The Armenian Genocide and Contested Imaginations of Armenianness by Sevan Beurki Beukian A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Alberta © Sevan Beurki Beukian, 2015 Abstract Armenians around the world commemorated the centennial of the Armenian Genocide in 2015, underscoring how compelling it is to consider contemporary expressions of their identity in relation to collective traumatic memory. This study examines the impact of the collective memory of the Genocide on the discursive shifts in Armenian national identity from 1988 until 2013. Inspired by Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and critical discourse analysis, the theoretical framework of the dissertation links national habitus to the literature on collective memory and trauma and gendered constructions of the nation state. The main research question guiding this study is: How is ‘Armenianness' constructed in the period 1988-2013? A secondary research question examined is: Has the dominant discourse on ‘Armenianness’ shifted or changed in this period, and if so, how and why? This study identifies four main pillars of Armenian collective identity in the contested construction of the discourse of ‘Armenianness’: 1) the place of women and constructions of femininity; 2) the 1988 movement in Armenia; 3) diaspora-homeland relations; and 4), Turkey- Armenia relations. Using discourse analysis to analyze 48 semi-structured interviews conducted in Armenia and Karabakh in 2011 and other ‘texts’ such as government documents, speeches, videos, and documentaries, the case of Armenia is examined not only horizontally across time, but also across several issues that shape the political and social environment of post-Soviet Armenia. The memory of the Armenian Genocide of 1915 is a strongly unifying factor that shapes the discourse of ‘us’ that makes Armenians feel part of a community, creating a strong sense of belonging to the Armenian nation despite the historical, social, ideological, and cultural differences that shape the Armenian habituses. The emotional and traumatic impact of the Genocide (through !ii survival stories and transmission) has shaped the habits of Armenians. As such, the Genocide of 1915 can be understood in many ways as the beginning of contemporary Armenian history that has shifted discourses around the conception of Armenianness for both the Armenian diasporas and the Armenians in Armenia, especially after 1988 for the latter. The fieldwork and analysis of all collected data reveal the importance of the time of 1915 for Armenians. But this seemingly unifying memory is overshadowed by, the striking complexities of difference found in Armenia and Karabakh. The main argument of the dissertation is that the traumatic collective memory of the Armenian Genocide of 1915 directly and indirectly shapes the shifts in expressions of ‘Armenianness' in Armenian national habitus(es) from 1988 until 2013 through its link with the four main pillars of Armenian identity. This link can be understood in a triangular relationship between Nagorno-Karabakh/Armenia-Turkey relations/and the traumatic memory of 1915. It seems that the continued denial of the Turkish government of their ancestor’s crimes continues to weigh heavily on the Armenian psyche. Hence, the time of 1915 consciously and unconsciously continues to shape the process of Armenian national habituses. !iii Preface This thesis is an original work by Sevan Beurki Beukian. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, Project Name “Expressions of Identity in the Construction of Nations: the Case of Armenia and the post-Soviet Region”, No. Pro00019821, February 17, 2011. A shorter version of Chapter 3 of this thesis has been published as Sevan Beukian, 2014, “Motherhood as Armenianness: Expressions of Femininity in the Making of Armenian National Identity,” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 14 (2): 247-269. !iv Acknowledgements The journey of writing and completing this project has been very enjoyable to me, perhaps due to my personal connection with the importance of my topic. My defence was symbolically concluded in 2015, the year Armenians around the world commemorated the centennial of the Armenian Genocide. It is my hope that it will not be long before the threshold of justice is crossed by the Turkish state and a dignified historical justice is achieved for Armenians. I wish to express my strong and sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Yasmeen Abu-Laban. She has generously supported me from the beginning through the various stages of the PhD program, and I am deeply grateful to have worked with her. Her mentorship, wisdom, expertise, and careful guidance throughout these years have provided me with the support and confidence needed in order to complete the thesis project. Dr. Abu-Laban’s constructive feedback and advice were very helpful in my first publication efforts. I also want to express my gratitude to my other supervisory committee members, Dr. Lori Thorlakson (Department of Political Science) and Dr. David R. Marples (Department of History and Classics), for their unreserved support throughout the process. They have both been extremely helpful in my attempts to be exposed in the search for post-doctoral opportunities. Dr. Thorlakson’s insightful feedback on my chapters and her continuously encouraging words were very helpful as I was finalizing my work. Dr. Marples’s encouragement and his expertise in the field of Soviet and post-Soviet politics have been inspirational to me. His constructive feedback on my chapters, our discussion on Armenia and post-Soviet politics broadened my horizon on the comparative themes with other cases, which my future work could address. I want to thank Dr. Lois Harder, member of my examining committee for her careful reading of my thesis and her constructive feedback and suggestions for future projects in my field. I also want to say thank you for all the support she offered as Graduate Chair of Political Science and later. I want to also express my appreciation to Dr. David MacDonald (Department of Political Science, University of Guelph) as the external reader on my thesis examination committee for his thorough reading of my work, astute feedback and suggestions. His theoretical and empirical contribution to the field of memory and trauma studies (especially in genocide studies) is invaluable. I want to express my deepest gratitude to all my interviewees in Armenia and Karabakh: everyone was extremely hospitable and warm in their greeting and sharing of their expertise and knowledge. Many of my interviews generously invited me to their homes where we shared ‘bread and salt’ together. I want to thank many of my interviewees who offered me their library to borrow the needed texts for my research and many offered me books and other material that were very useful for my thesis. I want to thank the Turpanjian Center for Policy Analysis at the American University of Armenia for hosting me as a Visiting Research Scholar in 2011 during my fieldwork. The Centre provided me with a comfortable space to work in and to meet various researchers. I want to thank Dr. Lucig H. Danielian and Ani Dallakyan for all their support and welcome. !v I am grateful to my fellow graduate students in the department for making the experience of the PhD a much less lonelier endeavour and much more fun - special thanks to Kerri Holland and Nicole Marshall for being wonderful officemates, for the great chats, and for the friendship during these past years of the PhD program. I also want to extend my thanks to my friends all over the world in different continents for being there by email and other media of communication - it was so great to be able to share my experience here and to have such a lovely community of friendships. My research was generously funded by several awards and scholarships throughout the years of my PhD study: the U of A FGSR, the U of A President Office, the Department of Political Science at the U of A, Margaret Brine PhD Scholarship, Delta Kappa Gamma International Scholarship. I am indebted to my parents for their unconditional love and care. Their understanding, patience, and belief in me has made all the difference in making me who I am. Their love of education and constant encouragement for us to follow our dreams, and their dedication to the community life of Armenians in Lebanon has taught me the value of contribution and desire for more learning. I want to thank my sister, Sarine Beukian, for being my best friend and always being there when I need to talk. Without her, life would not be as full of excitement and fun. I also want to thank my Babushka and my Russian parents for their love and care to us, and for helping me to further improve my Russian language practice. Finally, and most importantly, I want to make a very special mention to my son Stepan and my life partner Alexander Kuznetsov. Their love and care, their hugs, and their patience during the many working nights and weekends and missed events have given me the warmth and support I needed to bring this project to completion. I want to thank Sasha for his gentle pushes much needed at times to finish the work, for always listening to me as I attempted to refine my argument in my research, and for being an inspiration for hard work and dedication. I could