Conservation of the European Wildcat (Felis silvestris) and Addressing the Issue of Hybridization within Europe NAME: REMI OOSTENDORP SNR: 2015256 INSTITUTION: TILBURG UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT: EUROPEAN AND INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC LAW SUBMISSION DATE: MAY 2019 Table of Contents Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5 1.1 The European wildcat .................................................................................................................... 5 1.1.1 Taxonomy ............................................................................................................................... 6 1.1.2 Habitat .................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1.3 Ecology.................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Conservation status and legal framework ..................................................................................... 7 1.3 Conservation threats ..................................................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 European wildcat population in Scotland ............................................................................ 10 1.3.2 European wildcat population in the Netherlands ................................................................ 11 1.4 Central aim and structure ........................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2 Legal Framework of the European Wildcat .......................................................................... 13 2.1 Convention on Biological Diversity .............................................................................................. 13 2.2 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ................ 14 2.3 Bern Convention .......................................................................................................................... 15 2.4 EU Habitats Directive ................................................................................................................... 20 2.5 Concluding remarks ..................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 3 The European wildcat and hybridization .............................................................................. 28 3.1 Hybrids: Included or excluded ..................................................................................................... 28 3.2 Addressing hybridization ............................................................................................................. 30 3.2.1 Removing or neutering hybrids from the wild ..................................................................... 30 3.2.2 Captive breeding programme .............................................................................................. 31 3.2.3 Connecting populations ....................................................................................................... 33 3.2.4 Reducing the risk of (feral) domestic cats ............................................................................ 33 3.2.5 Mandatory ............................................................................................................................ 35 3.3 Concluding remarks ..................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 38 4.1 Legal framework of the European wildcat .................................................................................. 38 4.2 Addressing hybridization ............................................................................................................. 40 Reference List ........................................................................................................................................ 42 1 Summary In the last few years a lot has been written about the conservation of Europe’s large carnivores. However, from a legal perspective, little attention has been given to Europe’s smaller carnivores. This dissertation intends to change that, at least with respect to the European wildcat. Although this elusive creature is listed as ‘Least Concern’ by the IUCN, the overall population is decreasing. Moreover, the species is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range States. Next to deforestation and diseases, anthropogenic hybridization is to be considered as the primary threat for the species. Law, including international and European law, has a role to play in addressing these threats. In this light, the central aim of this dissertation is to provide an answer to the following question: ‘What is the role of international and European law in conserving the European wildcat (Felis silvestris) within Europe in general, and particularly with regard to addressing the primary threat of hybridization?’ Legal framework of the European wildcat The European wildcat is covered by multiple international legal instruments. Most important are the Bern Convention and the Habitats Directive. The objective of the former is to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats, especially those species and habitats whose conservation requires the co-operation of several States, and to promote such co-operation. To achieve this objective, Article 2 obligates the contracting parties to take requisite measures to maintain the population of wild flora and fauna at, or adapt it to, a level which corresponds in particular to ecological, scientific and cultural requirements. This population standard constitutes an absolute minimum, which can safely be assumed to be well above that at which a species is in danger of extinction – i.e. Article 2 requires that the populations should at least not be threatened at national level. Nevertheless, in some cases, it is possible to look at the transboundary level of a population instead of at the national level. This requires a transboundary action plan that sets goals and agreements on measures. However, in case of the European wildcat, effective conservation is not entirely depended on transboundary cooperation. Making the need for such plan lesser in comparison with Europe’s large carnivores. The objective of the Habitats Directive is the maintenance of a favourable conservation status. This is a situation where a habitat type or species is doing sufficiently well in terms of quality and quantity and has a good prospect of continuing to do so in the future. A favourable situation needs to be 2 reached and maintained, based on the best available knowledge. Thus, the obligation is more than just avoiding extinction. In order to achieve the above objectives, both the Convention and the Directive provide two main instruments: area protection and species protection. With respect to species protection, the European wildcat is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention (strictly protected fauna species), respectively in Annex IV of the Habitats Directive (species of Community interest requiring strict protection). For species listed in Appendix II, Article 6 of the Convention requires contracting parties to take appropriate and necessary legislative and administrative measures to ensure the special protection of the European wildcat. For animal species listed in Appendix IV, Article 12 of the Directive requires to take requisite measures to establish a system of strict protection. For both the Convention and the Directive, this entails an obligation to prohibit, inter alia, the deliberate killing and capturing of the species. Furthermore, it prohibits the deliberate disturbance of the species, particularly during the period of breeding, rearing and hibernation, and it prohibits the deterioration or destruction of breeding sites or resting places. This required system of prohibitions does not necessarily exhaust the obligation to take ‘appropriate and necessary’, respectively ‘requisite’ measures. The adoption and implementation of purely prohibitive measures may not be sufficient, and may not guarantee effective implementation of Article 6, respectively Article 12. In such cases, both instruments require the adoption and implementation of preventive and mitigation measures. Whether and to what extent such active measures are necessary will vary from situation to situation. It is possible to derogate from Article 6, respectively Article 12. Both provisions that regulate the derogation – Article 9 of the Bern Convention and Article 16 of the Habitats Directive – set out three conditions, which are essentially the same: - derogation is only possible for one of the reasons mentioned in Article 9, respectively Article 16; - there is ‘no other satisfactory solution’, respectively ‘no other alternative’; and - derogation will ‘not be detrimental to the survival of the population concerned’, respectively ‘not detrimental to the maintenance of the populations of the species concerned at a favourable conservation status in their natural