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Contact: [email protected] The Killing Fields of Cambodia: An Investigation into Motivations of Visitors to Dark Sites. by Lorna Elizabeth Thomas Canterbury Christ Church University Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Year 2017 Abstract A central aim of this study is to establish tourist motivations to visit dark sites such as Tuol Sleng and Choeung Ek in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The body of literature that exists around dark tourism published so far agrees there is a general lack of understanding around dark tourism motivations. The research questions set out in this study ask if tourists who visit such sites view themselves as dark tourists, whether time plays a role in their motivations to visit and what factors inspire them to visit such sites. The study also considers sub-conscious, psychological and instinctive drivers that exist which may compel tourists to visit and experience dark sites. The study revealed that tourists who visited Tuol Sleng and/or Choeung Ek did not consider themselves dark tourists, and moreover, did not like to be associated with the terminology. They assumed that to be labelled a dark tourist, their motivations would be inspired by the dark and macabre nature of the sites, or that they would seek enjoyment from their visit. They were keen to stress that this was not the case. They were there to learn and understand what happened and to experience Cambodia properly. Moreover, tourist guidebooks, such as The Lonely Planet heavily advise a visit and act as a powerful driver, as well as trusted word-of-mouth sources. The study also revealed that chronology heightens curiosity and motivation to visit, but does not act as a motivator in its own right – tourists would have visited anyway. A significant finding of this study reveals that human instinct and psychology plays an important role in human fascination with violent death and, therefore, visits to dark sites. We need to learn and understand what happens to either avoid it happening to us, or to learn how to survive should we find ourselves in the same situation. Visiting such sites is part of our psychological make-up and that these drivers exits in all of us to a greater or lesser degree. Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... i List of Tables, Figures and Maps .......................................................................... ii List of Panels .......................................................................................................... iii Introduction and Context of the Study .................................................................. v PART ONE – DARK TOURISM LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGY Chapter One – Dark Tourism Definitions ............................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Definitions and Origins of Dark Tourism ................................................................... 2 1.2 Emerging Dark Tourism Typologies .......................................................................... 8 1.4 Different Shades of Dark .......................................................................................... 14 1.5 Prisons as Dark Tourism ........................................................................................... 19 1.6 Dark Fun Factories ................................................................................................... 25 1.7 Cemeteries and Battlefield Tourism ......................................................................... 31 1.8 Democide and Atrocity ............................................................................................. 37 1.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 42 Chapter Two - The Strange Allure of Death and the Macabre ......................... 45 2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 45 2.1 A Question of Survival ............................................................................................. 46 2.2 Psychology of Death ................................................................................................. 52 2.2.1 Death Instinct ......................................................................................................... 52 2.3 Catharsis ................................................................................................................... 58 2.4 The Influence of the Media and a Desire to see Horror and Violence...................... 64 2.4.1 The Reporting of Death in the Media .................................................................... 65 2.4.2 Violent Films and Television Programmes............................................................ 67 2.4.5 Film Tourism ......................................................................................................... 70 2.5 Children and Horror Stories ...................................................................................... 74 2.5.1 Why Children Like Violence ................................................................................. 77 2.6 The Appeal of Violent Sport ..................................................................................... 81 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 86 Chapter Three - Dark Tourism Motivations ....................................................... 88 3.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 88 3.1 General Tourism Motivation .................................................................................... 88 3.2 Dark Tourism Motivation Literature ........................................................................ 92 3.3 Multiple Motivations ................................................................................................ 98 3.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 104 Chapter Four - Methodology .............................................................................. 105 Introduction................................................................................................................... 105 4.1 Research Paradigm ................................................................................................. 106 4.2 Developing a Research Methodology: The Research Approach ............................ 106 4.2.1 Ontology .............................................................................................................. 107 4.2.2 Epistemology ....................................................................................................... 109 4.2.3 Qualitative Research ............................................................................................ 112 4.3 Nature of, and Justification for Data Collection Methods ...................................... 114 4.4 Research Methodology: Instruments of Investigation ............................................ 120 4.4.2 Qualitative Questioning ....................................................................................... 125 4.4.2.1 Honest and Trustworthy.................................................................................... 127 4.4.2.2 Recording Devices ............................................................................................ 129 4.4.2.3 Interview Setting and Maps of Both Sites ........................................................ 129 4.6 Data Analysis Strategy ........................................................................................... 137 4.6.1 Content Analysis .................................................................................................. 138 4.6.2 NVivo as a research tool ...................................................................................... 139 4.7 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................... 141 4.8 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 141 4.9 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 143 PART TWO: THE KEY FACTOR INFLUENCING OF VISITING DARK SITES Introduction